Mythic Geography
Imagine the geography of Greece through mythology
The ancient inhabitants of Greece were profoundly impacted by their environment. This is reflected in the stories they told about gods, heroes, and other peoples.
The ancient Greeks told stories about the natural world around them.
How did the ancient Greeks relate to the physical world around them? One way was through telling stories, or mythology, about the natural world and the peoples who inhabited it. The Greeks created mythological stories about geographical features, about the cycles of the seasons, about specific locations in the Greek world, and about their travels in the wider Mediterranean. By learning about these stories, we can gain insight into how the Greeks themselves saw the natural world.
These stories were sometimes part of festivals or rituals, but they were also told in everyday life. Some myths are preserved in texts that we can read, although these were often written down hundreds of years after the story was first told. We can learn more about mythology through mythological art, which is depicted on Greek pottery, statues, architecture, and other material culture.
Like all story-telling, each time a myth is told it is slightly different. One of the most challenging and beautiful parts of mythology is that there are many variations. A story told in ancient Eleon might have been different than one told in Sparta. Some myths were very local. For example, the stories of personified river gods were often known to the people who live near that river. Other myths may be considered panhellenic, or relevant to all Greeks. An example of a panhellenic myth is the story of Herakles (also known by his Romanized name, Hercules), the greatest of all Greek heroes. Herakles was said to have traveled all around the Greek world and his stories were known far and wide.
Finally, it is important to remember that the variations in myth represent hundreds of years of oral storytelling tradition. A myth might be told for years before it is written down, and sometimes it never was. This is why it is important to consider both textual and material sources for mythology.
The Olympian gods lived on lofty Mount Olympus.
The Greeks were polytheistic, which means that they believed in multiple gods. The pan-hellenic Olympian gods were thought to live on Mount Olympus, the tallest peak in Greece, after which the group is named.
The Olympians included:
- Zeus, king of the gods, god of sky and order
- Hera, goddess of marriage and birth
- Athena, goddess of war and wisdom
- Poseidon, god of the sea and horses
- Artemis, goddess of the hunt and wild animals
- Apollo, god of prophecy, healing, and music
- Hermes, god of travellers and thieves
- Demeter, goddess of the harvest
- Hephaestus, god of metalworking and technology
- Ares, god of war
- Aphrodite, god of love
- Dionysos, god of wine and theatre
The Olympians were recognized across Greece, but the Greeks told stories about local gods too.
The Greeks imagined gods who lived around them and walked the same natural landscapes as they did.
There were water gods who personified rivers and gods who dwelt in the uninhabited forests. It was the goddess of Dawn who brought the sunrise each morning and Dusk who made the sun set each night. The four directions were personified as the four winds: Boreas (the North Wind), Zephryos (the West), Notos (the South), and Euros (the East).
The gods were present in the city, too. Athena, goddess of war and intellect, was particularly revered at Athens. One myth tells of how Athena came to be the patron god of Athens: Long ago, both Athena and Poseidon wanted to be patron of the Athenians. They held a contest on the Akropolis of Athens. Each god would give a gift to the Athenians, and the Athenians would choose which they liked best. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and produced a saltwater spring. Athena touched the ground with her spear and an olive tree sprung to life. Athena was proclaimed the victor, and the olive tree became an important part of Athenian life and economy. The city was thereafter named Athens, after the goddess Athena. Athenian coinage shows Athena on one side and an owl, the symbol of wisdom and Athena herself, on the other.
For the Greeks, the activities of the gods were felt by mortals on earth as natural phenomena.
The Greeks offered a mythological explanation for many natural phenomena, from the species of trees to the thunderous storm clouds in the sky. Disasters were connected with the gods, too. Plagues were the result of Apollo's arrows, while angry gods cursed mortals with earthquakes and droughts. One myth tells of how the activities of Demeter, goddess of the harvest, and her daughter Persephone, goddess of vegetation, impact agricultural and seasonal cycles on earth.
One day, Persephone was playing in a field when she was kidnapped by Hades, king of the Underworld. Demeter became grief-stricken at the loss of her daughter. She roamed the countryside, wailing in grief. Demeter’s grief was felt among humans and gods – as the goddess of grain, Demeter’s sadness meant that crops did not grow. When crops did not grow, humans were not able to make sacrifices to the gods. Eventually, Zeus, king of the gods, decided he must do something about Demeter’s sadness. He ordered that Hades return Persephone to live with Demeter. However, before Hades let her go, he offered Persephone a pomegranate seed. Persephone ate the pomegranate seed, which was a symbol of the Underworld and it tied her to that place. So, Persephone returned to spend two thirds of the year with her mother. Demeter, happy to be reunited with her daughter, taught the secrets of agriculture to the prince Triptolemos and humans grew crops again. During this time, it is summer. However, because she ate the pomegranate seed, Persephone must spend a third of the year with Hades in the Underworld. During this time, Demeter causes the crops to cease growing and it is winter.
Mythological stories were told about heroes who travelled across the Greek landscapes.
Just as the stories about Greek gods were connected with the landscape of Greece, so too were stories about Greek heroes. These myths describe the exploits of a hero as they travelled to specific places in the Greek world. Many of these stories took place in a legendary past that resembled the Mycenaean Age in Greece. It was in response to these stories that early archaeologists began to search for cities like Troy and Mycenae.
Right: Delphi, Greece.
The labours of Herakles may be considered a tour of the southern Greek landscape.
Herakles was the greatest of the Greek heroes. Herakles is often considered pan-hellenic, and he was known throughout the Greek world. He was celebrated for using his strength to overcome his opponents, although his brawn also sometimes got him into trouble. Herakles is usually represented wearing a lion’s skin (which he got after slaying the Nemean Lion) and holding a club, which symbolizes his strength and wild nature.
Herakles was ordered by the oracle of Delphi to serve King Eurystheus, who sent him on 12 labours. The labours took place at specific locations throughout Southern Greece, but additional stories took Herakles as far as the Straits of Gibraltar (known as the Pillars of Herakles in antiquity, this is the narrow straight between Morocco and Spain in the West Mediterranean). Together, these stories acted as a kind of metaphorical tour of the world known to the Greeks, and especially the Peloponnese and southern Greece.
Herakles' 12 Canonical Labours
- Nemean Lion
- Lernaean Hydra
- Cerneian Hind
- Erymanthian Boar
- Augean Stables
- Stymphalian Birds
- Cretan Bull
- Mares of Diomedes
- Belt of Hippolyta
- Cattle of Geryon
- Golden Apples of the Hesperides
- Cerberus
The exploits of Theseus explore the Saronic Gulf.
In contrast to the pan-hellenic hero Herakles, the hero Theseus came to be particularly associated with Athens. Theseus is perhaps best known for killing the Minotaur, a half-bull, half-man creature who lived on Crete. Can you find the Minotaur in the image on the right?
There are many stories about the hero; one tradition held that Theseus had six labours. These labours are concentrated in the area of the Saronic Gulf and Crete, which were important locales in connection with the Athenian empire. It may be that these stories, which told of an Athenian hero who conquered enemies in these lands, reinforced Athenian influence in these areas.
While the enemies of Herakles tend to represent the challenges of the wilderness, Theseus’ opponents are often the enemies of urban life. Theseus was known for using his intellect, as well as his strength, to overcome his enemies. He often used his enemy’s weapon of choice against them. For example, Procrustes was a bandit who pretended to welcome passersby into his home for the night. When they got into bed, however, he would either stretch them to fit the length of the bed or cut off their feet to make them fit! Theseus bested Procrustes by forcing him into the bed and cutting off his feet.
Theseus' 6 labours
- At Epidaurus, Periphetes the Club Bearer
- At Isthmia, Sinis the Bandit
- At Crommyon, the Commyonian Cow
- Near Megara, Sciron the Robber
- Near Eleusis, Cercyron the Wrestler
- Near Eleusis, Procrustes the Stretcher
Mythological stories also explored how the Greeks related to the other peoples of the Mediterranean Basin.
The adventures of Odysseus depict the centrality of the sea.
The tales of Odysseus are described in Homer’s poem, the Odyssey. This poem takes place after the Trojan War, when the heroes are returning to their homes. Odysseus is trying to sail back to Ithaka, the island where he is king, but the god Poseidon is angry and keeps blowing his boat off course. As a result, Odysseus sails to many places around the Mediterranean Sea before he finally returns home. Some of these interactions are peaceful, but more often Odysseus and his crew participate in small raids to secure food and water.
Homer opens the Odyssey with these lines: “Tell me, Muse, of the man of many devices, who wandered many ways after he had sacked the sacred citadel of Troy. Many men whose cities he saw and whose mind he learned, yes, and many the woes he suffered in his heart upon the sea, seeking to win his own life and the return of his comrades” (Bk 1).
The story of Io illustrates the interconnected nature of the Mediterranean Basin.
The story of Io, a Greek princess who is turned into a cow and chased around the Mediterranean, incorporates knowledge about Mediterranean geography. Through genealogy, or family ties, Io was connected with many other Greek heroes, such as Cadmus, Perseus, Herakles, and King Minos of Crete. Io’s adventures show the interconnected nature of the Mediterranean Basin. Her role as an ancestor of Greek heroes demonstrates how the Greeks saw themselves as connected to other peoples of the Mediterranean.
Try it: As you follow Io's journey below, notice how many sites are involved in one myth. How would the Greeks have known about these lands? What does this myth tell us about how the Greeks saw themselves in relation to other peoples of the Mediterranean?
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The Myth of Io
The Greek myth of Io is an example of how Greek geographical knowledge was incorporated into storytelling. As you follow Io's journey, notice how many different locations are involved in just one myth.
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Argos
Io was a beautiful priestess of the goddess Hera who once lived at Argos. One day, Hera became jealous of Io's beauty, so Zeus turned Io into a cow!
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Mycenae
Io was banished to Mycenae, where she was chained to a tree and guarded by a one-hundred eyed Giant named Argus. Eventually, Hermes, the messenger god, freed Io from her chains and defeated the Giant.
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Ionian Gulf
But Hera's jealousy continued. She sent a fly to bother Io and chase the cow around the Mediterranean. First, Io went west to the Ionian Gulf.
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Illyria
Then she ran north to Illyria.
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Mount Haemus
Then she went east, to Mount Haemus in Northern Thrace.
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Bosphorus
Io was chased by the gadfly through the Thracian Straits, which was also known as the Bosphoros.
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Scythia
Then Io visited Scythia.
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Cimmerian Lands
And crossed the Black Sea to Cimmerian Land.
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Egypt
She wandered over great tracts of land and swam wide stretches of sea, both in Europe and Asia, until at last she came to the shores of Egypt.
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The Nile, Egypt
In Egypt, Io was transformed back into a beautiful woman, and she gave birth to a son beside the Nile River. Io named him Ephaphos.
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Syria
But Hera's wrath continued, and she kidnapped Io's son. After searching all along the coast, Io found her son in Syria. The two returned to Egypt, where Io married the Egyptian Pharoah.
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Libya
When Ephaphos grew up, he became King of Egypt and married Queen Memphis. Together, they had a daughter, who they named Libya.
Through genealogy, Io, Ephaphos, and Libya are connected with many other Greek heroes. Through heroes like Cadmus and Perseus, their story is continued.
Greek mythology is deeply connected with geography.
The ancient Greeks told stories about gods and heroes who roamed the same world that they did. These stories demonstrate one way that the ancient Greeks related to the physical and human geography of the Mediterranean. Some stories were explicitly about geographical features, like the mountains and rivers that shaped the Greek landscape. Some told of how the behaviour of gods, like Demeter and Athena, impacted life for humans. Other myths told of heroes who travelled across that landscape and beyond the Greek world, fighting enemies and meeting other peoples of the Mediterranean Basin.
Greek mythology includes many stories that can be connected with specific places in the Greek world, some of which have even been excavated by archaeologists today. As we learn about the Greeks and their mythology in the modern day, it is amazing that we can locate so many Greek myths on a map. You can explore maps of other Greek myths here, at the Myths on Maps project.
