Jazz in Florida

The archive will contain oral histories, photographs, manuscripts, sheet music, letters and other materials related to jazz in the state. We hope these materials connect jazz fans, musicians, educators, students, scholars, and industry professionals to a living, interactive digital database that bridges the gap of personal (oral histories and stories), local (Florida, and more specifically the Tampa Bay Area), and national jazz history.

In focusing on the local, the archive hopes to serve as a model and inspiration to other archival and research projects attempting to document jazz’s diverse local languages.

Jazz music emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries utilizing a variety of musical devices, including improvisation, polyrhythms, and syncopation. In Florida, Jazz groups (musicians and listeners) play an important role in the local music scene. In the early years of jazz music, venues consisted of mainly nightclubs and dance halls. By the 1940s and 1950s, jazz was at its height in popularity. Public interest declined around the same time, in part due to the changes in mainstream music, specifically the birth of rock and roll. Today jazz music is performed in a variety of venues and contexts, a mixture of nightclubs, restaurants, theaters, and music festivals.

This exhibit explores the function of Jazz in Florida from its emergence in the early 20th century until today. Including historical narratives and legal accounts of the music and dancing scenes in the Tampa Bay area. 

In the years surrounding World War I, jazz had secured itself in mainstream American society. There was a change in the leisure habits of people in the United States. The imminent danger of war drove people to enjoy life to the fullest. As old ideas of modesty fell to the wayside, people gathered to listen to jazz and dance almost every night of the week. Jazz in its earliest years had been embraced as a way to let loose and forget about the world’s political troubles, but as World War I came to a close in 1918, the country turned its attention to domestic issues of morality. The prohibition of alcohol seems to be a huge factor in shaping attitudes toward an increasingly popular jazz culture. After World War I, there was already a tendency for some to try and eliminate the country’s vices. Once alcohol was banned, it must have seemed appropriate to try and treat society’s ills by banning other things, as well, especially jazz. Figure 1 shows that in 1922, the city Savannah, Georgia almost unanimously passed “an ordinance prohibiting jazz dancing.”  There is also record of an Asheville, North Carolina orchestra prohibiting its members from making any unnecessary or unusual noises not indicated in the music, or making movements conspicuously noticeable that would tend to distract from the dignity of the performance.” Whether Floridians agreed with these bans or not, they were entertained by them enough to feature the stories in their newspapers. The Ocala Evening Star may reflect one Floridian opinion on the matter, that there are many more “sensible” things a government could do.

“With the passage of the Volsted Act of 1919, prohibition had come into force, outlawing the manufacture and sale of alcohol. But instead of eliminating consumption, Prohibition drove it underground, there nightclubs, cabarets, and speakeasies lured late-night crowds with the promise of illegal booze and unregulated revelry” (Hasse, Jazz: the first century, 2000, p. 26). Because of these and other circumstances, there emerged a complex relationship between the demand for illegal alcohol and the demand for venues featuring jazz music to dance to. This, coupled with the racial tensions of the time, made jazz the target of much judgement and criticism. Jazz was also providing a completely different kind of music than people were used to, and it is often the actual music— the sounds of jazz— which were criticized (see Figure 6). As the culture began to shift away from classical music, some believed that jazz, like ragtime before it, would destroy “American” families, morals, and psyche with its wild, irregular sounds. In his book, Jazz, Paul Whiteman, popularly known as the “King of Jazz,” recalls that “Ministers, club women, teachers, and parents have been seeing in jazz a menace to the youth of the nation ever since the word came into general use. They have claimed that it put the ‘sin’ in ‘syncopation’” (1974, p. 137). Whiteman’s perspective may remind us that, as often happens with the advent of new things, there was some disagreement about the nature of the influence jazz was having.

Both sides of this issue are displayed in the article shown in Figure 7. Here, an opinion piece is taken from one newspaper, and commented on by a columnist with The Ocala Evening Star. Although the jazz is seldom celebrated in these columns, here we see the push-back from one Floridian who saw that some aspects of jazz culture were beneficial. It is unclear whether the author wrote their addition in support of women’s liberty, but it does seem to dismiss the idea that jazz was responsible for destroying the country’s moral fiber.

For better or worse all eyes were on jazz music during the 1920s, and according to Jazz: The First Century, “every major city in the country had one or more jazz bands, but aural documentation is sparse” (Hasse, 2000, p. 48). We do have extensive print evidence Florida was home to its own regional bands and hosted visiting bands. Often advertisements and articles involving jazz ran in Florida newspapers in the early 20s. Although some opinion articles sought to challenge jazz culture, advertisements, of course, never showed any trace of these anti-jazz ideas.

By the late 1910s, no function would have been complete without a little jazz, and as Article 7 and 8 in the PDF file show, some events were organized for the sole purpose of dancing to this new, exciting music.

There is an interesting trend in Florida’s newspapers (which most likely do not deviate dramatically from the norm) to list many, if not all, of the names of people who had attended a particular event. Article 9 in the PDF file shows one such list, which seems to function much in the same way today’s social media does, by making public the attendance at social gatherings, and promoting the popularity of the event, the bands, the venue, and people, themselves. The article also preserves an account of the Ocala Women’s Clubhouse décor, and makes mention of the floors’ recent renovation, highlighting how vigorous and important the dancing portion of such events were. Because of the overwhelming popularity of dancing, jazz bands could be found playing in a variety of venues for a variety of occasions, clubhouses and casinos served as fine venues, and often organizations would hold dances as fundraisers. One American Legion held dances so frequently that it was referred to in many ads as “Top O’ the Town” (See Articles 12, 15, in the PDF file, and the first image displayed in the gallery).

Jazz music was present at fairs and parades, sometimes providing music for dances at public events, like Labor Day festivities at Clearwater Beach, shown in an advertisement in Article 20 in the PDF file. Collins’ Jazz Band provided music for dancers “all day” starting at 10 in the morning.  Jazz bands were also hired to provide ambient music during dinners, holiday events, and other get-togethers. Article 22 in the PDF file shows an advertisement for the Daisy Tea Room holiday events, including a Friday night chicken dinner featuring music by Jimmie Collins’ Jazz Orchestra. This is also an interesting example of how a band might make little changes to their name for different venues.  

Radio culture in the early 20th century helped spread jazz, so that even out-of-the-way areas, like Florida, began enjoying some of the same music as big centers of jazz like Chicago and New Orleans. By the middle of the 1920s, radio was widely available, and even some rural populations were familiar with the popular tunes of the day. Listeners would gather in both private and public, to crowd around radios with enthusiasm. Article 23 in the PDF file tells the story of jazz fans struggling to pick up the “radio concert” which they all had come to hear at a local pharmacy. In the article, an astonishing fifty people had turned out to hear the program, but many were skeptical of this new technology, and almost half the crowd left after there was some difficulty picking up a good signal. Those who stayed enjoyed a musical variety for almost three hours, and the program lasted until 11 o’clock in the evening.

The Ocala evening star. (Ocala, Florida.). Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/

Palatka daily news. (Palatka, Florida). Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov

Hasse, John Edward. "The Flourishing of Jazz." In Jazz: The First Century, 48. First ed. New York, New York: William Morrow, 2000.

Whiteman, Paul, and Mary Margaret McBride. "Jazz in America." In Jazz, 137. New York: Arno Press, 1974.

Jazz Societies play an important role in Florida’s local music scene. These outstanding organizations thrive by offering the local community something you just cannot get anywhere outside these establishments. The many jazz clubs, groups, and society’s home to Florida, are institutions born of necessity. Their prominent presences truly “describes the rich social life that has emerged around the collecting and sharing of jazz recordings by associations of listeners in” the greater Metropolitan Tampa Bay Area (Pyper). Jazz Societies are on-going processes, happening behind the scenes in the community.

Jazz societies are a conduit that fuels new live jazz performances. More than likely, there are regular Jazz happenings going on in a city near you because of these societies. The fluidity of and accessibility of the local jazz scene is made possible in part due to the continually maintained ebb and flow of organized local jazz talent. These musical societies are found all over Central Florida but are not limited to this particular region of Florida; they also appear spread all throughout the Sunshine State, from Miami to Jacksonville and nearly everywhere in-between.

What exactly is being supplied by all these jazz societies? The vital answer lies in their shared vision: connecting people with music not easily available in the popular music media landscape. These local jazz institutions make it evidently clear that they share a common goal: the quest to preserve and further jazz music, art, and culture. Jazz is still very much alive, and these jazz societies are making a long-term investment in the music, guaranteeing that it will exist in live performance in the future.

These jazz organizations perform fundamental task of jazz exposure through media outlets. Often it is these societies that organize events, concerts, and annual festivals on the local level. Societies also offer the unique extended ability to build, strengthen, and support individuals and their communities. One of their most vital roles is their mission to provide support for young and aspiring musicians.  Most of the jazz societies offer scholarships and grant opportunities for youth.

Jazz is deeply rooted in the past but will never be stuck in the past thanks to all support and hard rewarding work made possible by these organizations. Crucially, Jazz societies inform the various communities of Tampa Bay through their monumental presence, importance, prominence, and relevance.  The social cultural dynamic in which Jazz Societies thrive here in our local communities, mirrors the Jazz Societies of South Africa, a topic that scholar Brett Pyper has conducted extensive research on. He has correlated specific information illuminating the way in which Jazz Societies create “a semi-public culture of listening…that is distinct from the formal jazz recording, broadcast and festival sectors, and extends across various social, cultural, linguistic and related boundaries to constitute a vibrant dimension of vernacular musical life.” (Pyper). Gathered below is a short yet comprehensive list of some of the more local jazz societies, also listed are a few other jazz sources and links, followed by a closer look at three Tampa Bay Area Jazz societies.

• The Al Downing Jazz Society  http://aldowningjazz.com 
• Central Florida Jazz Society  http://centralfloridajazzsociety.com/ 
• Clearwater Jazz Holiday  http://www.clearwaterjazz.com/ 
• Jazz Foundation of American  http://www.jazzfoundation.org/  
• The Jazz Club of Sarasota  http://www.jazzclubsarasota.org   
• St. Augustine Jazz Society  http://www.staugustinejazzsociety.org/ 
• Suncoast Dixieland Jazz Society  http://www.sdjs.org/ 
• Tampa Jazz Club  http://www.tampajazzclub.com/index.html 
• WUSF Public Media  http://www.wusf.usf.edu/music/channel/jazz 

The Al Downing Jazz Society arranges “Jazz Jams” every first Monday of the month at The Hangar Restaurant in St. Pete. They also schedule artists every first Saturday of the month and encourage people to come enjoy a friendly and creative environment with no cover charge! The Al Downing Society makes a tremendous effort to introduce jazz to youth through their “Outreach Program” that focuses on exposing students in primary and secondary public schools to the art form. Their aim is to inform young students about the history of Jazz, and also to encourage the pursuit of this cultural art form to help advance and improve it within the Tampa Bay area.

Al Downing was born in Jacksonville Florida, in 1916, and lived a life full of creativity and compassion. From a very early age, he established himself as a very intelligent musician, as he formed high school jazz bands and eventually was accepted by Ernie Calhoun to be an organist in the “Ernie Calhoun and The Soul Brothers Band.” Later in his music career, he started his own band called “The All Stars”, which transcended racial boundaries in a time that was very much defined and segregated by race. Mr. Downing also taught in the Tampa Bay area for over 20 years before beginning the Al Downing jazz society in 1981. Then in 1989, the Al Downing Jazz society merged with the Tampa Bay Jazz society to form the Al Downing Tampa Bay Jazz society.  The Al Downing Tampa Bay Jazz Society meets weekly for events and uses their concerts to help advance and preserve the art form. Al Downing passed away in 2000, however his legacy still lives on, through his organization that impacts not only Jazz as an art form, but also the culture of Tampa Bay. 

The Jazz Club of Sarasota remains one of the most prominent and active jazz societies within the state of Florida, and also the nation. The club has currently over 500 members, and is growing every year. Hal Davis established the Jazz Club of Sarasota in 1980. It began with just a few of his neighbors, and continues to grow. The annual Sarasota Jazz festival is considered to be a major United States Jazz festival, and has been running successfully for over thirty-five years. The success of this festival has allowed The Jazz Club of Sarasota to grow and extend its impact to the masses, not just their members. They have also made a notable effort to help aspiring musicians, contributing over $200,000 to students at every level of education. These large donations inspire people to pursue jazz as not only a subject of study but also as an activity that can serve as a creative outlet. Every Friday, The Jazz Club of Sarasota holds the “Jazz at Two” concert series. This concert series showcases a wide variety of musicians, and is held at the Unitarian Universalist Church in Sarasota from 2:00-4:00 P.M. This society showcases talented and prestigious musicians weekly while also contributing generously to youth, holding annual events like the Sarasota Jazz Festival. Through these actions, they are able to not only preserve Jazz music, but also foster future jazz musicians and fans within the local area.

One of the more recently established jazz organizations in the Tampa Bay area is the Tampa Jazz Club, which was created as a non-profit organization in 1995. Partnered with the Hillsborough Community College’s Student Activities Program, they focus on preserving and performing the art of Jazz in the Tampa area. Their scholarship program is more recent, but their contributions to the youth and the future of the art have been crucial. They have awarded 14 high school graduates with over a total of $15,000 to help maintain the great level of jazz music in the area, and also to help open opportunities for future jazz musicians. Their concerts are held at Hillsborough Community College’s Performing Arts Building on their Ybor Campus, and frequently showcase very popular jazz artists such as Dick Hyman and Whitney James. These concerts are complimentary for HCC students, and persons under the age of ten. This young society shows promising growth due to their dedicated affiliation with HCC and also their ability to consistently showcase accomplished jazz musicians.

“The Al Downing Jazz Society.” Al Downing Tampa Bay Jazz Society. Web.

“All Night Jazz.” WUSF Public Media. N.p., 12 Nov. 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.<http://www.wusf.usf.edu/music/channel/jazz>.

“Jazz Club of Sarasota.” Jazz Club of Sarasota. Phone: 941.366.1552, Email:admin@jazzclubsarasota.com. n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.  http://www.jazzclubsarasota.org/ 

Maley, Dick. “Home.” Suncoast Dixieland Jazz Society. President (863) 838-9001, n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. <http://www.sdjs.org/>

Page, Carla. "Home." Central Florida Jazz Society. President, 2015. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.                       <http://centralfloridajazzsociety.com/>.

Petrucelli, Joseph, Ass. Director. "Saving Jazz and Blues One Musician at a Time." Jazz Foundation of America. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. <http://www.jazzfoundation.org/>.

Pyper, Brett. "'You can't listen alone': Jazz, listening and sociality in a transitioning South Africa." Dissertation Abstracts International Section A 75.

(2015). PsycINFO.Web. 7 Dec. 2015. <http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/>.

Ross, Curtis. “Tampa Jazz Club Concert Series Kicks Into Gear Tonight” The Tampa

Tribune 30 September 2001. Print.

Stockman, Don. President of the "St Augustine Jazz Society." St Augustine Jazz Society.  Donstaug8849@att.net , 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. <http://www.staugustinejazzsociety.org/>.

“Tampa Jazz Club.” Tampa Jazz Club Inc. N.p., 1995. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. <http://www.tampajazzclub.com/index.html>.

Vivinetto, Gina. "Furthering Al Downing's Legacy." The St. Petersburg Times 19 Aug. 1991. Print.

Weinberger, Steve, CEO. "Clearwater Jazz Holiday 4 Days and 4 Nights of Live Music & Jazz." Clearwater Jazz. N.p., 2002. Web. 17 Nov. 2015 <http://www.clearwaterjazz.com/>.

“Welcome to the Al Downing Tampa Bay Jazz Association, Inc.” Al Downing Tampa Bay Jazz Association, Inc. (ADTBJA), 2015. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.<http://aldowningjazz.com/>.

A photograph is not merely a record of a specific instance, a shot of time that can be seen and then dispensed with – it is a memory of a bygone time captured forever in a solitary image. The changes from one photograph, taken in the past, and put into the present, can be jarring: a photograph in hand to prove that something used to be here, that places, people, ideas, used to exist at all. Often forgotten in the use of photography as a medium in the use of historical archives is how metaphysical the nature of a captured image becomes – and in the history of Florida, which has changed dramatically and unalterably in the last half-century all over the state—photography becomes a gateway to the metaphysical, a meditation on the passage of time itself.

In Tampa, a city which carried on apace with what Gary Mormino in Land of Sunshine, State of Dreams has called "the Big Bang" of Florida demography, photography is an invaluable tool to show how much has changed – and how much has been lost. ¹  Here, one can examine the age when jazz music came to Tampa and created a vibrant, shimmering nightlife.

In the photographic collections of Robertson and Fresh and the Burgert Brothers— commercial photographers operating before, during, and after the Great Depression—one finds recollections – often painfully wistful – of a Tampa gone by. This was the Tampa that met the glorious dawn of jazz music America. It was a breakneck era of development, when many of the most recognizable aspects of Tampa today rapidly appeared: the Courtney Campbell Causeway, the numerous bridges spanning the Hillsborough River, the lofty eighteen-story Floridian Hotel (Fig. 1). ² 

Digitized and waiting in the University of South Florida's Special Collections, the faded, vanished glamour of old Tampa nightlife still sparkles, vivacious even through an aching wistfulness, wordlessness. This golden age of jazz music in Tampa coincided with some of Robertson and Fresh’s and the Burgert Brothers' most

The Burgert Brothers, especially, were noted for their technical skill: as Robert B. Snyder and Jack B. Moore note in their book about the brothers, Pioneer Commercial Photography, the brothers “produced superb commercial photography without pretense or staged artiness.” A fine example of this is their exterior shot of the Cliff Mathis Place in Ybor (Fig. 3). Of course, one can easily say the same for those taken by Robertson and Fresh, competitors of the Burgerts. Yet in both cases there was probably no need for anything “staged” or with “pretense.” ³ 

One finds in these photographs places such as the High Hat Club (Fig. 4), Sloppy Joe's, Porky's Supper Club 601 Zack Street (today a Verizon Wireless store) that longer exist anymore. We see mostly white people disporting themselves, dancing, eating, and smoking. 

The attire of the era means that even the most casual dresser looks, to modern eyes, fabulous and well-appointed. There are smiles, laughter, and joy. Even looking at a still image one can feel the energy, smell the cigar music, and hear the trumpets, trombones, drums. One can imagine in the book a few crooked fellows are playing bolita – “a numbers game, much like the lottery today, where a person bough certain numbers that would hopefully be picked by the bolita house.” ⁴ 

Yet white people are not the exclusive focus of these photographs. Snyder and Moore also point out that “the studio never had a color line. The Burgerts accepted appointments from everyone.” ⁵  Their apparent determination to be consummate businessman who did not adhere to any contemporary segregated hate would prove invaluable for the historian. Robertson and Fresh, their rival photography outfit in Tampa, also seemed to be refreshingly oblivious to the “color line” of twentieth-century Florida social politics. And so one sees, in both the work of the Burgert Brothers and Robertson and Fresh, not just black, but white and Latino. The admixture of the African-American community with that of the Latino (specifically, Cuban) community is on display in the photographic collections of both the Burgert Brothers and that of Robertson and Fresh: Blacks dance on the patio of Marti Maceo, Ybor City (Fig. 4), which still stands today as a multi-cultural meeting place. African-American Jazz musicians pose with their instruments in two photographs (Figs. 2 and 7). In a third image, taken at the long-defunct Sloppy Joe's, musicians can be seen posing with Latin instruments in a multi-racial crowd (Fig. 6).

While music generally has been seen to be a unifier regardless of race or creed, it was jazz that crossed the color boundary all over the United States. Clearly this was the same in Tampa, with the photographic evidence as proof. While Tampa has long been understood to be a cultural melting-pot, the age of jazz music also acted as a leveler, where despite segregation, citizens could, for a night, be made beautifully equal.

One returns, however, to the people and the places in the photographs themselves. Who were they? What were they? What were their hopes, dreams, favorite drinks, and favorite songs? All one has, are the images, the photographs, and the pieces of narrative that can be painstakingly reconstructed from them.

Jazz as a mainstream music was short-lived, in Tampa as in the rest of the country. Tampa itself would become a backwater to the exploding music and fashion scenes in Miami, made all the more important a bare decade after the era of Robertson and Fresh and the Burgert Brothers with the Cuban Revolution, and the influx of refugees into that city.

All that remains are photographs – a historical puzzle, left to the scholar to assemble.

1. Gary Mormino, Land of Sunshine, State of Dreams (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,             2005), 9-10.

2. Robert E. Snyder and Jack E. Moore, Pioneer Commercial Photography: The Burgert Brothers, Tampa Florida (Cocoa, Florida: The Florida Historical Press, 1992), 35.

3. Ibid., 97.

4. Geoffrey Mohlman, Bibliography of Resources Concerning the African-American Presence In Tampa: 1513-1995 (Tampa: University of South Florida, 1995),120.

5. Snyder and Moore, Burgert Brothers, 89.

Music festivals offer the chance for both fans and musicians to come together to share unique experiences and enjoy many different artists playing music in one place. Festivals have been a way for jazz to stay alive as newer genre’s take popularity. In the past, fans have had to rely on nightclubs to be able to see live performances from jazz musicians. The emergence of jazz festivals offers performers and fans the opportunity to experience the music in a larger setting.  

Music festivals offer the chance for both fans and musicians to come together to share unique experiences and enjoy many different artists playing music in one place. For jazz music in particular, festivals have been a way for the genre to stay alive throughout the years of the rise of rock and pop music. In the past, fans have had to rely on nightclubs to be able to see live performances from jazz musicians. Since then, jazz has come a long way because “jazz festival[s] represented a major shift in jazz performance from its origins in nightclubs to performance settings emphasizing the type of appreciation accorded high art performance.” [1] By the 1980s, jazz had long lost its place at the center of popular music, replaced by numerous other genres of music such as country, rock, rap, and pop. [2] Two long-standing festivals in Florida, the Jacksonville Jazz Festival and Clearwater Jazz Holiday, have worked for over thirty years to bring artists from all over the United States to perform jazz and each draws crowds of thousands of loyal fans. The jazz scene in Florida is not as widely known as other areas such as New Orleans, but jazz is very much still present after all of these years.

The Jacksonville Jazz Festival (formerly called “Mayport and All That Jazz”) began in 1981 and has brought in a variety of artists such as Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, and Tony Bennett, and it continues to grow each year. [3] The first year of the festival, the crowd was estimated to be only a couple hundred people, but soon would attract just close to twenty-five thousand people, demonstrating that while jazz may not be talked about often in the mainstream, there are many people who remain dedicated to the genre after all these years. The festival began as a free admission festival, which remains true today. It also features other events such as youth music competitions and other performances by musicians before or after the actual festival, in addition to the jazz artists scheduled to perform. The Clearwater Jazz Holiday began in 1980 and has featured jazz artists such as Woody Herman and Nat Adderley, and even more widely known pop artists such as Earth, Wind, & Fire. [4] Just like Jacksonville, this festival also prides itself on having free admission to the public and has attracted crowds as large as one hundred thousand people. [5]

The Jacksonville Jazz Festival and Clearwater Jazz Holiday have both become a sort of hub for listeners of jazz to celebrate the genre and view performances from skilled jazz artists that come from different regions of the United States. With the rise of other types of music throughout the years, nightclubs in Florida that were originally dedicated to jazz have changed their main music genres or have closed their doors, making it difficult for those not connected in the scene to stay up to date with both new and old artists and to find jazz musicians that are still performing regularly. Unless a jazz artist is very popular, it can be extremely hard to gain exposure from new listeners because jazz is not talked about regularly in Florida. Jazz festivals allow for a large amount of exposure because they are visible and advertised well, meaning casual fans of jazz are still able to connect with the community and support the scene.

With the rise of both of these festivals throughout the years, it has become apparent that jazz needs its fans to support events such as these in order to allow the musicians to keep the genre afloat. The community-driven approach of these two festivals gives power to the people to help the jazz community live and stay strong through the changing music landscape. However, it could be argued that the mix of jazz, pop, rock, R&B, folk, and other genres at the Clearwater Jazz Holiday in particular has caused the festival to stray from its roots and anger loyal fans of the genre. “Since 2012… the lineup has skewed more toward pop and soul headliners like Bonnie Raitt, Chicago, and Earth, Wind and Fire,” [6] instead of focusing on a strictly jazz lineup. However, it could be argued that had the festival not adapted with the rise of other popular forms of music today, it would not have been able to survive for thirty-six years because jazz is not as mainstream as it used to be. [7] Nevertheless, these two festivals have worked to build a loyal fan base in Florida that attends the events every year. Even today, with mainstream pop artists dominating the music charts and many radio stations, the jazz festivals still manage to bring in tens of thousands of people eager to listen to some of the best artists of the genre.

When examining the history of jazz festivals in Florida, it can be hard to find information that dates earlier than the 1980’s. Putting the focus on the Jacksonville Jazz Festival and the Clearwater Jazz Holiday allowed me to examine more historical information on how these two festivals were built from the ground up, and why they are still around and thriving today. With an emphasis on periodicals and scholarly articles, I believe I acquired knowledge of how important festivals are to music, especially for less popular genres such as jazz. As more and more people hear about large events such as these, they tend to tell their friends about them as well, bringing in an even larger crowd, where hopefully the jazz artists can gain new fans. Thus, the large numbers of people bring in more money to support jazz and allows for the festivals to put on bigger acts each year. By featuring many different types of music that fall into the jazz genre, attendees are able to be exposed to new things they have never heard before, along with classics, all in one convenient place.

The term “jazz” means many different things for different people. For Florida and its festivals, “jazz” stands for a community filled with dedication and support in keeping the music alive. The music scene would not be the same without the support of thousands who come out to festivals each year to enjoy the music and voice their opinions on the artists who perform. In the words of a loyal jazz fan in Florida, “We love the music…and the whole atmosphere of the festival. It’s just fun.” [8] The Jacksonville Jazz Festival and Clearwater Jazz Holiday remain relevant and important after all of these years because they give the opportunity for anyone to attend and discover new and old talents in the jazz scene. By continuing to book incredible lineups of artists performing each year, these festivals don’t seem to be going anywhere anytime soon.

[1] Paul Douglas Lopes, The Rise of a Jazz Art World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 234.

[2] Larry Starr and Christopher Alan Waterman, American Popular Music: The Rock Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 233-234.

[3] “History of the Jacksonville Jazz Festival.” JaxHappenings.

[4] “Jazz Holiday Previous Artists.” Clearwater Jazz Holiday.

[5] “Alive: 20 Years of Jazz.” Clearwater Jazz Holiday. 7 October 1999.

[6] Jay Cridlin, “Sheryl Crow Headlines Jazz Holiday Lineup,” Tampa Bay Times 9 May 2015.

[7] Sean Daly, “Listen, It’s a Fab Lineup at a Great Price,” Tampa Bay Times 18 October 2012.

[8] Teresa Stepzinski, “A time for all at Jazz Festival; Many come out to enjoy the weather, sights, sounds and food of event.” The Florida Times Union 2013.

“Alive: 20 Years of Jazz.” 1999 Clearwater Jazz Holiday. October 7, 1999. Accessed November 12, 2015.  http://www.sptimes.com/News/100799/Alive/20_years_of_Jazz.shtml .

Cridlin, Jay. “Sheryl Crow Headlines Jazz Holiday Lineup.” Tampa Bay Times. May 9, 2015 Saturday. Accessed December 7, 2015.  www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic .

Daly, Sean. “Listen, It’s a Fab Lineup at a Great Price.” Tampa Bay Times. October 18, 2012 Thursday. Accessed December 7, 2015.  www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic .

“History of the Jacksonville Jazz Festival.” JaxHappenings. Accessed November 15, 2015.  http://www.makeascenedowntown.com/Events/Event-SubPages/Jacksonville-Jazz-Festival/About-JJF.aspx .

“Jazz Holiday Previous Artists.” Clearwater Jazz Holiday. Accessed November 14, 2015.  https://www.clearwaterjazz.com/jazz_holiday_previous_lineup.html .

Lopes, Paul Douglas. The Rise of a Jazz Art World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Starr, Larry, and Christopher Alan Waterman. American Popular Music: The Rock Years. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Stepzinski, Teresa. “A time for all at Jazz Festival; Many come out to enjoy the weather, sights, sounds and food of event.” The Florida Times Union,  2013. Business Insights: Essentials, EBSCOhost (accessed November 15, 2015).  http://bi.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.usf.edu/essentials/article/GALE|A332798837/f64e37624e867b2332a01d78f2855cc7?u=tamp44898 .

Latin Jazz is a very distinct and unique genre of music because it combines these two fantastic styles for an explosive fusion. Both Latin and Jazz have large followings and substantial talent on each side. What is so interesting about it is that these two genres are fusions within themselves being mixed with as many as Cuban, African, Puerto Rican, Caribbean, American, and Blues rhythms. There is a spontaneity that keeps it fresh by enlivening musicians and audiences. It is a blend of worldly beats that really makes people want to get up and dance.

The question on everyone’s minds is, what is the birth of Latin Jazz? Well, the big secret is that it’s simply unknown. In one theory scholars believe jazz bands were playing in clubs around Cuba then incorporating those sounds and instruments. Another more popular theory reports that it emerged from the flood of immigrants into New York City. What we do know is that once both Latin and Jazz were established styles, they attracted many talented musicians to New York, “the epicenter of the Afro-Cuban jazz explosion.” [1] It was bustling with every musical style on the spectrum which made for an incredibly diverse scene. No doubt, this intermingling led to jam bands playing mambo, bossa nova, son, danza, and blending these rhythms with that of the leading jazz movement of the time creating an entirely new sound. If the sound weren’t enough, this new style introduced a variety of popular Latin percussion instruments otherwise unused by American jazz bands: bongos, cornets, congas, and timbales. This array of options created inspiration around every corner, club, and studio.

New York may have been the ultimate space for Latin Jazz, but that’s not to say that other cities didn’t have a city worth speaking about. Since it is only 80 miles from Havana, Cuba, Florida became many travelers and immigrants first introduction to the United States. Before Latin and Caribbean musicians traveled north seeking fame, they spent time in Florida playing local shows or touring around the state earning money for their ticket up north. Others flocked to Miami just for the fun. Jazz drummer Panama Francis called it “the playground of America, before Bugsy Siegel got the idea for Las Vegas.” [2]

One of the interesting aspects of Miami was that popular musicians would come visit, sometimes returning, and others would end up staying and living the local club life. It was, and remains, a social and musical hodge-podge of talent playing together, influencing one another. Famous acts like Dizzy Gillespie, Arturo Sandoval and Cab Calloway visited jazz clubs all around Florida, but took a distinct liking to Miami area. It already had a Latin presence that made it enjoyable for popular artists and local acts to collaborate and improvise on any given night.

Back in the 1930’s when jazz bands were being hired more often and certain establishments were becoming more open minded in terms of race and ethnicity, it was still a continuous struggle for black and Latino groups to book gigs. At this time, racial tensions were extremely high, which proved to be very difficult for most jazz bands. Many of the hotels and other clubs would only let white musicians play, which was truly unfortunate because they were missing out on the best talent. Miami businesses really shut themselves off from their local and national acts due to segregation and racism. This led local talent and touring bands to play in other cities around Florida, away from fancy beach towns. Bands like Smiling Billy Stewart, C.S. Belton Florida Symphony, and George Kelly Cavaliers were just a few that had to play right outside the big cities due to racial laws. In his autobiography Francis sums up the feeling of the local jazz talent of the time, “I would of never left Miami if I had been able to play because there was so many clubs around there. Why would I want to go to NY? I wanted to play music, and so I went to NY. If Florida had of been opened up they could have had a major jazz scene, the talent would of stayed there. They hurt themselves by segregation.” [3]

  ^[1]  Raul Fernandez, Latin Jazz: The Perfect Combination/La Combinacion Perfecta (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2002), 44.

[2] David Albert Francis, Panama’s Story: My History as a Jazz Drummer (Xlibris, 2013), 3.

[3] Ibid., 17.

Florida music venues for jazz consisted mainly of nightclubs and dance halls. By the 1940’s and 1950’s jazz was at the height of its popularity. Public interest declined around the same time, possibly due to the changes in mainstream music, specifically the birth of rock and roll. Notable venues for jazz music were: The Ritz, Floridan Palace Hotel and The Fox Sarah’s Restaurant, The Cotton Club, and Manhattan Casino.

The Florida jazz scene has been one that is in constant flux. The jazz clubs that dominated the early 1900s are far and few between, but there are remnants of the past still alive today. The Floridan Palace Hotel and The Fox are two clubs that have endured but not without their challenges.

Built in 1926 and opening its doors in 1927, the Floridan Palace Hotel is [one of the oldest and tallest buildings in Tampa. The hotel has gone through many name changes over the years, but the physical structure has remained the same. When it first opened its doors, it was known as the Hotel Floridan, then the Floridan Hotel. What is interesting to note is the sign that adorns the rooftop says Hotel Floridan. The hotel struggled over the years, with the decline starting in the 1960s when newer, more modern hotels starting to pop up. The hotel then stopped renting out rooms to tourist and instead rented out to long-term patrons, acting more of an apartment complex rather than a hotel. After going through many owners, the hotel finally closed its door in 1989. The hotel then was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 and in 2005 the hotel was bought with intention to restore it. Finally in 2012 the Hotel was reopened and is operating today.

At first glance one could assume that a hotel has nothing to do with Jazz, but the Floridan Palace Hotel was one of the most popular places in Tampa. During World War II Tampa was still in its early stages of growth, but the airbase was fully functional and full of servicemen. Drew Army Airfield which was opened in 1928 housed the service men and for them the place to be in the 1940s was the Hotel Floridan.  When most today people think of hotels, they usually do not think of a bustling night life, or if they do, it is not associated with places in a hotel. The Floridan Place Hotel had multiple places for the service men to relax. The Crystal Dining Room which is as described on the hotel’s website as, “adorned with crystal chandeliers and hand painted cherubs. The distinguished fine dining restaurant boasts an ornate 1926 ceiling which has been intricately restored, Baroque style bone China, and fresh red roses.” However, the place to be in the 1940s was the Sapphire Room. The Sapphire Room was a bar/lounge with live music and had a wild reputation. Nicknamed the Sure Fire Room for the loose nature of the cliental who went with the intention of getting into sexual exploits. Tony Kovach, a pianist for the Sapphire Room who also played in the 50s sat down for an interview with the Tampa Bay Times and recounted how what it was like back then. Tony said “the new Sapphire Room is as nice as it ever was, although in its original run, it was the kind of place that you couldn't even get into without a tie and jacket. Women dressed to the nines, wearing long gloves and sometimes even a hat.” Today the sapphire room still has the same charm as it did when it opened, the music that filled the walls have changed only slightly. In the room today you will not hear today’s top 40, but rather a mix of live jazz, and on days with no acts the recordings of Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin fill the room.

The Floridan Palace Hotel and the Sapphire Room are a microcosms of Jazz in the Tampa area. The Floridan Palace Hotel was in its prime in the 1940s and '50s, but public interest declined. The Hotel that was the crown jewel of Tampa became a symbol of the past. However, a changed occur a man saw what it was and what it could be and decided to bring it back. Not only did this occur with the Floridan Palace Hotel but also The Fox.

The Fox Jazz Club has had a complicated history, the history being one that is riddled with closures. The Fox is and was known as the place to go if one wanted to experience jazz in Tampa. At first glance it does not appear to be a typical jazz venue, driving by one would not notice it as it is an office complex. Inside though the club has two distinct places, Justin Grant, a Tampa Bay Times correspondent found that out firsthand. “Every stool at the long, winding bar was occupied, and other patrons were seated at the dinner tables and high-tops, with the rest on the dance floor, which was in full swing. A full band was on stage, playing a high-energy jazz fusion set mixed with a few renditions of modern pop hits.”  His account of the room was what most people see when they first enter, but off to the side a hallway connects the main club to a more intimate setting. “At the end [of the hallway] was another bar, this one pitch-black, save for a few lights illuminating a jazz quartet performing to a small and intimate audience. The scene was straight out of a noir film, with a lounge singer's silky voice cutting through the shadows of the small room as people seated at tables along the walls sipped cocktails and listened intently.” The latter bar is what people think of when they think of a jazz club, people dressed to the nine’s smoke filling in the room and people captivated by the sound of jazz. When Justin recounted his experience, he did so in 2011, The Fox is still in turmoil as far as its future is concerned, in October of 2015 they had to be shut down for undisclosed reasons, but the website promises the club will be back.

The Fox and the Floridan Palace Hotel are just two jazz venues in Tampa, but they reflect the state of jazz in the area. At one time, both places were the pinnacle of successful jazz venues, the bars were full and jazz music filled the room. Then people lost interest, it’s not as if people hated jazz or they turned into horrible places, it is just people stopped caring and that is the worst thing. If people are upset over a particular thing or overjoyed, they give validity to it, but when people fail to acknowledge it takes away the worth of something, the value. Jazz in Tampa was just a reflection of the state in jazz in general, it is not as if jazz stopped and people no longer cared about it, but rather it became specialized and harder to find. The Floridan Palace Hotel and The Fox were the two biggest places in the Bay area, they went away, shut down. Until someone that cared stepped up and revived it, and now while they might not be as big, they are still worthwhile to visit. The Floridan Palace Hotel will give one the experience of time traveling to the 1940s where service men spent their time. On the other hand, you can go to the Fox and get the authentic jazz experience, visit a place where the people are dressed to the nine’s, and the only thing that cuts through the smoke is the voice of the singer.

Inspiration often comes in unexpected ways.  While thinking about how to write this historical narrative and incorporate all the research that I had compiled on music venues, my thoughts ran to a cut and dry narration of places and events.  This did not sound appealing.  I wanted to write a narrative that brought the venues to life and had a cohesive story line.  My inspiration came as I listened to a class interview with Jack Wilkins, a professor at the University of South Florida. He mentioned the phrase ‘music circuit.’ This started me thinking that, just as there is a circuit of venues today, perhaps there was the same in the early years of jazz, especially for African-American musicians in the days of segregation. There was, and it was called the “Chitlin’ Circuit.”

During the Jim Crow years it was hard for black musicians to earn a living, thus the “Chitlin’ Circuit” was born. It was the collective name given to various bars, barns, dancehalls, recreation centers, nightclubs, restaurants, and concert halls throughout the country where it was safe for African American musicians to perform. Black entertainers and their fans were not always welcome in whites-only venues. [1] The earliest informal mention that I found of the Chitlin’ Circuit referenced the traveling tent shows in the late 19th century, where black vaudeville acts performed in blackface. The circuit became more formalized in the early 1900s with the development of the Theater Owners Booking Agency (TOBA), which booked black entertainers. The name has a pejorative connotation. It derives from the soul food item chitterlings, stewed pig intestine, which is closely associated with black culture in the United States. Before the American Civil War the leftovers of slaughtered pigs, including the intestines, were fed to African-American slaves throughout the Southern United States.

Artists who worked for TOBA often joked that it stood for “tough on black asses,” a reference to the obstacles that African Americans even working for black agents and theater owners. TOBA began in 1909 and disappeared during the Great Depression. The association is more often thought of as related to black theater or vaudeville while the Chitlin’ Circuit is usually associated with musical artists. The actual Theater Owners’ Booking Association has a fairly specific life span, whereas the “Chitlin’ Circuit” is a more informal term used by performers well into the middle of the twentieth century.

Although there were music venues throughout the eastern, southern, and upper mid-west areas of the United States, [2] this paper will concentrate on the Florida music venues [3] which were stops along the Chitlin’ Circuit. Many nightclubs and dance halls emerged on the circuit. There was an unwritten rule followed by performers on the circuit.  They would only play in a city that had a black radio station.  During that era, for the most part, African Americans didn’t read the entertainment section of the newspaper.  They got their information through flyers in their church bulletin, word of mouth, or by listening to the radio. [4]

This narrative will begin at “The Ritz” in Jacksonville in a neighborhood that was known as the “Harlem of the South.” The Ritz was a stop on the Chitlin’ Circuit.  It was built in 1917 and originally named the Rizoli Theater.  The Ritz Theater was designed in the Art Deco style by local architect Jefferson Powell. The inside of the Ritz has beautiful chandeliers and original checkered floors. The theater has recently undergone a $2 million dollar renovation.  The sign and northwest corner are all that remain of the original building. [5] The Florida Theatre in Jacksonville was another popular stop on the Chitlin’ Circuit. It was built on the site of a dilapidated police station. It became an integral part of Jacksonville culture. [6] 

In the 1950s, Sarah’s Restaurant and The Cotton Club in Gainesville were two stops on the Chitlin’ Circuit.[7] Both establishments were owned and operated by Sarah McKnight, an African American businesswoman. Sarah’s Restaurant was located at 732 NW 5th Avenue. It served as a lunch counter during the day and a club by night.  Many artists would play at both venues before heading on to the next stop on the Chitlin’ Circuit.      

The South Street Casino in Orlando was a performance hall that featured musicians that traveled the ‘Chitlin’ Circuit.’ The Casino housed a basketball court and a skating rink for young adults. The Casino acted as an African American recreation center during the day and a performance center at night.  The building was severely damaged by fire and finally demolished in 1987. [8]

In the 1920s, after dark on summer evenings the streets of 22nd Street South in St. Petersburg, Florida came alive with people strolling down the main drag calling greetings to each other.  “There was always something going on.  Somebody out twenty-four seven, let me tell you,” said Bobby Bowers. [9] The Manhattan Casino seemed to be the heart of African American social life in St. Petersburg. It became their refuge from the racism that greeted them daily.  The Manhattan Casino was one of the most important stops on the Chitlin’ Circuit. 

More than any other venue, the Manhattan Casino, nicknamed “The Home of Happy Feet,” [10] (a name meant to echo Harlem’s famous Savoy Ballroom) was the center of nightlife in the African American community during the segregation era.  From 1925 until it closed in 1968, the Manhattan was “the” place to be. For a few hours, the place came alive, with men in tuxedos and women in evening gowns [11] enjoying the pulsating music. It was a place where they could forget for a little while daily hardship and the bitterness of segregation.

Originally the building was called the Jordan Dance Hall. It was twelve thousand square feet. A narrow wooden staircase led to the second-floor entrance. Wooden benches lined each side of the long dance hall.  At the south end of the dance floor stood a small bandstand.  Behind the musicians were the orchestra room, restrooms and a rear exit stairway, probably used by the musicians to transport their instruments to and from the venue. In the parking lot of a drive-up restaurant across the street, music lovers sat in and on cars in the night air listening to some of the jazz greats.

There were other music venues nearby: the Melrose Park Clubhouse just west of 22nd on Fairfield Avenue; the Amusement Center, a converted warehouse at 22nd Street and 6th Avenue; the “crow’s nest” section of the La Plaza Theater on downtown Central Avenue; and the Harlem Theater at 1017 3rd Avenue South.  But for the most part, the “Home of Happy Feet,” was the heart and soul of the Black community in St. Petersburg. 

Black music artists were often not allowed to perform in segregated venues. When jazz greats played the Manhattan Casino, white and black music lovers stood shoulder to shoulder applauding and rocking to the music. [12] When we remember the Chitlin’ Circuit, we can celebrate the richness of the music that was created, shared, and enjoyed by people of all races.

1. The Ritz Theatre (1940s?). The Ritz was formerly known as the Rizoli Theater, which was built in 1917. The theater was located in the historic African-American community of La Villa, often referred to as the “Harlem of the South.”

<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ritz_Theatre,_Jacksonville_FL.jpg#/media/File:Ritz_Theatre,_Jacksonville_FL.jpg

3a, 3b.  The Florida Theater in Jacksonville

4. Sarah’s Restaurant, Gainesville. Sarah’s Restaurant, courtesy of the Matheson History Museum Collection. Sarah’s Restaurant was located at 732 N.W. 5th Avenue in Gainesville. It was a lunch counter by day and a club at night.

5a, 5b. Cotton Club, Gainesville. The Cotton Club located at 837 SE 7th Avenue in Gainesville, started out as a PX on Camp Blanding during World War II. Cotton Club as it stands today, image courtesy of Joanna Grey 2015. The building was purchased by William and Eunice Perryman and transported in pieces to its location near their grocery store. The Perrymans opened the Perryman Theater. Perryman’s Grocery as it stands today, image courtesy of Joanna Grey 2015. http://floridarevealed.tumblr.com/post/130701953614/sarah-mcknight . Sarah McKnight who owned and operated Sarah’s Restaurant, bought the Perryman Theater and opened the Cotton Club in 1950. It is speculated that the club’s license was not renewed because it catered to both black and white patrons during segregation. It closed in 1952.

6. Louis Armstrong performing at the Manhattan Casino in 1957.  http://www.tampabay.com/blogs/soundcheck/content/friday-relive-jazz-manhattan-casino-mahaffey-theater/2051160 

7. A cutaway view of the Manhattan Casino’s layout. Courtesy of Don Morris, St. Petersburg Times. The photograph was obtained from the book, St. Petersburg’s Historic 22nd Street South, written by Rosalie Peck and Jon Wilson. Referenced in endnote 10.

8a, 8b. This is a photograph of the Sno-Peak, the drive-up restaurant across the street from the Manhattan Casino. Courtesy of St. Petersburg Times. The photograph was obtained from the book, St. Petersburg’s Historic 22nd Street South, written by Rosalie Peck and Jon Wilson. Picture of Rosalie Peck, co-author of the book, St. Petersburg’s Historic 22nd Street South, dancing at the Manhattan Casino in its heyday. From the private collection of Rosalie Peck. The photograph was obtained from the book, St. Petersburg’s Historic 22nd Street South, written by Rosalie Peck and Jon Wilson. Referenced in endnote 10.

[1] Lauterbach, Preston. The Chitlin’ Circuit: And the Road to Rock ‘n’ Roll. 1.st ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011. Depicts the hardship that black entertainers had to endure during segregation. See also, Urban Dictionary,  http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=chitlin%27+circuit .

[2] Noted theaters and nightclubs on the Chitlin’ Circuit included the Royal Peacock in Atlanta; the Carver Theatre in Birmingham, Alabama; the Cotton Club, Smalls Paradise and the Apollo Theater in Harlem, New York City; Robert’s Show Lounge, Club DeLisa and the Regal Theatre in Chicago; the Howard Theatre in Washington, D.C.; the Uptown Theatre in Philadelphia; the Royal Theatre in Baltimore; the Fox Theatre in Detroit; the Victory Grill in Austin, Texas; the Hippodrome Theatre in Richmond, Virginia, and the Madam C. J. Walker Theatre on Indiana Avenue in Indianapolis.

[3] Although this paper only discusses a few of the Florida venues in detail, there were a multitude of venues, including but not limited to; the Manhattan Casino in St. Petersburg, the Apollo Ballroom and Royal Theater in Tampa, the Savoy Ballroom in Pensacola, the Cotton Club and Sarah’s Restaurant in Gainesville, the Ritz Theatre and the Two Spot in Jacksonville, the South Street Casino in Orlando, the Harlem Square in Miami, the Red Bird Café, the Cafe Deluxe, the Green Lantern, the Royal Palace in Tallahassee, and the Rabbit’s Place in Dade City. It is interesting to note what Lauterbach says in his book about the Chitlin’ Circuit (see supra endnote 2). “For many, the Chitlin’ Circuit is a literal reference to America’s underbelly; dirty, funky and filthy . . . In its most shadowy forms, the Chitlin’ Circuit found (bookmakers), bootleggers and racketeers managing artists and promoting shows.

[4] Gates, Henry Louis. The Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Reader p. 535

[5] Accessed December 4, 2015.  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ritz_Theatre,_Jacksonville_.g#/media/jpg#/media/File:Ritz_Theatre,_Jacksonville_FL.jpg .

[6]A Thing of Beauty, a Palace of Dreams. The Florida Theatre. Accessed December 4, 2015.  http://floridatheatre.com/about-ft/history/ .

[7]“Sarah McKnight.” Florida Revealed-. Accessed December 4, 2015.    http://floridarevealed.tumblr.com/post/130701953614/sarah-mcknight .

[8] The Wells Built Museum of African-American History and Culture/The Casino. The Well Built Museum of African-American History and Culture. September 4, 2013. Accessed December 4, 2015.  http://wellsbuiltmuseumofafricanamericanhistoryandculture.org/the-casino/. 

[9] Peck, Rosalie, and Jon Wilson. St. Petersburg’s Historic 22nd Street South. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2006. Bobby Bowers lived in the neighborhood called the “Deuces.”  His family owned the Sno-Peak drive-in. It stood in a massive parking lot across the street from the Manhattan Casino.  Besides serving food, it provided an outdoor party spot for people who couldn’t get into the Casino. They listened to the music streaming from the open windows of the casino.  There was no air conditioning during that era. 

[10]Ibid at p 49.

[11]Ibid at p 50.

[12]Peck, supra endnote 10, pp 49-55.

Vaudeville was mostly based out of New York City, but I did find a few places in Florida where they offered vaudeville shows in the area. I found a great deal of interesting information dealing with circus and Broadway shows coming to town. Many of the ads in the Tampa Times and Miami Herald linked many types of vaudeville performances together. I found the name Ethel Clayton underneath an ad with the words, “A Sporting Chance.” This caught my eye —seeing a name like this and it being next to other theater performances in the same paper was interesting. I found Ethel Clayton in a book called The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville by Anthony Slide. In this book it stated that Ethel Clayton and Ian Keith were in a dramatic sketch that was called “Clipped” which took place at the Riverside Theater in New York.

I also came across a variety of information dealing with ragtime or “ragging” as it was called. The ragtime music sounded like a broken or ragged rhythm that was played on a specific instrument. Many of these ragtime and vaudeville acts took part in the music scene in New York, the center of the era’s music industry.

In Florida newspapers from the 1910s (Tampa Times and Miami Herald), I found additional advertisements for vaudeville attractions. Although some acts were only done in New York City, I found a variety of ads that were for theaters hosting of theater, movies and musical groups in Tampa and Miami.

Vaudeville began in the 1880s until the 1930s.Vaudeville was popular in the United States and Canada. The acts were known as being a series of separate unrelated acts that were grouped together. ¹  These vaudeville acts included many musicians, singers, dancers, comedians, animals, magicians, impersonators and many more. ²  The music was furnished by a large orchestra of musicians who read the music. The music for the vaudeville shows used a pianist and a drummer and once in a while a violinist. ³ 

Florida is a large state with a variety of many different musicians with many accomplishments. Florida has grown over the years. I have lived in Florida my whole life and have witnessed many changes to the area I live in as the years clicked by. Florida has many opportunities for people who are just starting out whether it is music related or not. There are many areas in Florida that have musical venues and groups that many people take part in. A Spanish-English-Spanglish is a term that Mormino used in a book relating to Florida and jazz. ⁵  Spanglish is a cultural and media revolution that has taken root in the South Florida area. The talent in Florida that made a difference was largely in Miami. ⁶ 

Vaudeville eventually became one of the most popular forms of entertainment arts. ⁷  Many dramatic actors appeared in vaudeville acts and they attracted many people. ⁸  Vaudeville actors and vaudeville in general was considered a lower class rather than upper class entertainment. The amount of energy and hard work the vaudevillians put into their act was the most important part of what they did. They poured into their acts their hard work, time, skills and money and this was apparent when they performed. ⁹ 

I found a website after I searched through books and magazines that had something about the Sarasota Opera House showing a revival vaudeville show in April of 2014. ¹⁰  The website has different links to the performers and a way to contact them and even gave information on a blog located on the page. I was surprised to have come across all of this information relating to a present-day vaudeville revival in Florida.

  ^[1]   “Vaudeville The Heart of American Show Business.” Retrieved November 17, 2015, <http://www.vaudevillesrq.com/performers/>

 ²  Bill Smith, The Vaudevillians (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, 1976), 7.

 ³   Ibid., 7.

 ⁴   Gary R. Mormino, Land of Sunshine State of Dreams (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 297.

 ⁵   Ibid., 298.

 ⁶  Smith, Vaudevillians, 8

 ⁷  Smith, Vaudevillians, 8.

 ⁸  Smith, Vaudevillians, 9.

 ⁹  Vaudeville, The Heart of American Show Business, 2015.

 ¹⁰  Vaudeville, The Heart of American Show Business, 2015.

Mormino, G. R. Land of Sunshine State of Dreams. Gainesville: University Press of Florida (2005).

S.D., Trav. No Applause-Just Throw Money. New York: Faber and Faber, 2005.

Slide, Anthony. The Encylopedia of Vaudeville. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994.

Smith, Bill. The Vaudevillians. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, 1976.

“Vaudeville The Heart of American Show Business.” Retrieved November 17, 2015, <http://www.vaudevillesrq.com/performers/>

The Works Progress Administration archives at the University of South Florida Special Collections provide an essential insight into the experiences of Tampa residents in the 1930s and '40s. The collection provides legal documents, both local and federal, and ethnographic accounts, illustrating the racial issues present and their direct and indirect effect on music making in Tampa.  Although not focused on jazz, the WPA collection highlights the ways other musical traditions, especially folk and classical ones, functioned in the community during the period of jazz’s most mainstream success, the Swing Era. 

The Works Progress Administration (WPA) collection housed in the USF Special Collections proves to be very interesting in that it supplies students with drafts and manuscripts of the Federal Music Project in the state of Florida during the 1930s.

Within boxes 31 and 32 of the Works Progress Administration collection titled “Music” you will find a broad range of documents. The first is titled “The Romantic Origins of Our Patriot Song.” This document is from Jacksonville, Florida and is dated November 1936. The document discusses the history of the song “Yankee Doodle” and includes several variations that the committee came up with before finalizing the lyrics of the anthem. The next folder contains a scholastic, registered U.S. patent office roll book stamped with the number 3475. The roll book belonged to a woman named Mrs. Norma Russo and appeared to be a way in which musicians could log their attendance. Attached to the log is an application for students for the WPA Federal music project, claiming that the volunteer instructor is Norma Russo. This scroll book belonged to Norma Russo, a volunteer teacher who worked for the WPA Federal music project. The book was a way to account for the students who were a part of the program and were instructed by Mrs. Norma Russo.

Amongst the origins of Yankee Doodle and the roll book are several other documents describing the history of music in Florida including memorandums and choir songbooks. The most important in relation to creating the history of jazz in Florida archive are the documents referencing the Federal music project proposed in the 1940s. These documents include the scroll belonging to Norma Russo, mentioned earlier, a newspaper article, a manual of instructions, a document describing the policies of the project, and the project proposal itself. These documents are essential in describing the history of the music of Florida because they are all reference the Federal Music Project.

The newspaper article discusses a public speech given by a woman named Carita Doggett Corse. Her speech titled “Historical background of music in Florida” was created with the intention of proposing some form of a federal music project for the children of Florida. Corse showed that she was educated on the comprehensive study of Florida through the mention of various aspects of Florida history that suggested music had played an important part in the development of the state. Amongst these she gave examples of Seminole songs and legends native to Florida. (Doggett Corse, "Friday Musicale Members Hear Dr. Corse and Musical Program").

The manual of instructions included in the Works Progress Administration collection of the USF library was intended for the teachers involved with the federal music project. The manual of instructions states that the federal music project sought to give free music lessons to the children of Florida who could not afford it. In addition to Carita Doggett Corse’s discussion of the impact music has had in the establishment of Florida, the teachers involved were asked why the federal music project was created. Their answer was to make for a “more musical America.” (Black, Manual of Instructions). They also wrote that “the contribution to the American culture of the education program of the WPA music project is so great that it will probably be another generation before it can even begin to be measured.” (Black, Manual of Instructions). To say they had high hopes for the federal music project is an understatement.

The manual of instructions brought ease to institutions and private instructors competing with the project’s attention and success because they did not intend for competition but rather to compliment the work of these people and establishments. It is incredible how highly these teachers thought of the influence of music and how hard they fought to allow it to influence the lives of their students through this program. They not only considered the opportunity of participating in this program as a privilege, but a responsibility. Due to the fact that the program sought to enhance the knowledge and talent within its students rather than mold them into versions of their teachers, the manual of instructions was set in motion.

The actual WPA federal music project document was published in February (the year is not indicated). The project was sponsored by the Florida State planning board and of course, the Works Progress Administration. James R. Black, the State Supervisor at the time, shared a few words at the beginning of the document stating that “the WPA federal music project has greatly enhanced the cultural life of the State, and given impetus to a wide range of musical activities.” (Black, Musical Notes: WPA Florida Music Project). He asks for the support of people state-wide for this project which he later refers to as a “musical awakening.” (Black, Musical Notes: WPA Florida Music Project). While Black describes the project as giving opportunities to the underprivileged, he sums up the efforts of this project as merely completing the “…worthwhile task of serving where the need is greatest.” (Black, Musical Notes: WPA Florida Music Project).

This WPA federal music project document goes on to explain in detail how the project affected the State of Florida by region. In Jacksonville, the aspect of the program that appears to have had the most influence of its participants were the concerts performed by the WPA Florida Symphony Orchestra. These concerts inspired students to study symphonic music and encouraged them to play orchestral instruments. As for the Tampa area, the main influence of the project stemmed from the photographing of the Ybor City Music Academy. The photographs were taken by a federal works agency photographer who had hopes of publishing the series of pictures in one of the pictorial magazines of the time. Not only was this a great influence for the students participating in the project from the Tampa area, but the publishing of this series of photographs allowed for the publicity of the Federal Music Project. This publicity would potentially lead to the inspiration to do something similar in other parts of the U.S. and further encourage the incorporation of music within the lives of America’s youth.

The Federal music project was the result of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s new deal. Roosevelt sought to raise employment by increasing public projects so the Federal music project was born. It was created to employ hundreds of musicians, conductors, and composers across the U.S. Furthermore, Roosevelt stressed the importance of art in American culture and deemed cultural enrichment to be a part in achieving the “American Dream.” This led to the increase in public projects and the prominence of the Works Progress Administration’s music project in Florida, making it a huge part of the history of music in Florida. The Works Progress Administration federal music project did serve a necessity as Black loosely describes it. The project allowed for the underprivileged to learn and practice music at the discretion of the teachers who volunteered to be a part of this program.

Black, James R. Manual of Instructions. Florida Works Progress Administration. Print.

Black, James R. Musical Notes: WPA Florida Music Project. Florida Works Progress Administration. Print.

Clagg, Mrs. Earl D. The Romantic Origins of Our Patriot Song. Jacksonville: Florida Works Progress Administration: Division of Education, 1936. Print.

Doggett Corse, Carita. "Friday Musicale Members Hear Dr. Corse and Musical Program." Print.

Russo, Norma. Scholastic Registered U.S. Patent Office Roll Book. Florida Works Progress Administration. Print.

Weiner, R. G. “Bindas, Kenneth J. All Of This Music Belongs To The Nation. The WPA's Federal Music Project And American Society.” Journal Of Popular Culture 32 (1999): 160-161. 

The WPA archives provide a crucial insight into the experiences of Tampa residents in the 1930s and '40s. The documents in the archive contain ethnographic accounts and government documents that detail not only the types of music that residents of Tampa encountered, but the documents describe local churches and shops as well as the racial and ethnic make-up of these communities and neighborhoods in the greater Tampa region. While the documents attempt to analyze the community with an objective voice, the implications of mid- and early-twentieth century racial understandings are evident throughout. These racial understandings provide an account of how 1930s and '40s America prioritized race, not only at a local level but at a federal level, and, more importantly for this project, how these legal and societal outlooks on race impact the music-making and dance in Tampa during the era.

In an ethnography by Paul Diggs from September 2nd, 1938, the writer visits an African-American church located on the corner of 4th Street and Florence Avenue in Lakeland. Almost immediately in his writing, Diggs suggests an “African” influence on the church’s service:

“Their methods of worship are far different from the modern methods of worship held in most Negro Churches. If you have ever read of, or visited the jungles in Africa, or the deep rural sections of the West Indies Islands, you may see in their services the  interpreting of tribal dances done by the natives.”   ^[1]  

Diggs’ automatic association with Africa and the West Indies makes primitive what is not his own, and further in his writing he describes various dances (some resembling the Charleston to him) that occur in the church service. This writing is important for two reasons: it shows that the attempt at an objective voice with the WPA falls short (and is evident in the racial descriptions of the service), and the mention of dances shows a clear Tin Pan Alley and Jazz influence on the church service in an African American church in Lakeland.

While Diggs’ writing gives a bit of insight into the type of music played in African American churches in the 1930s, an essay by Viola B. Muse describes a vibrant, cosmopolitan mix of racial and ethnic groups in Tampa’s various neighborhoods (Muse notes that Tampa is more cosmopolitan than Jacksonville or Miami, but less so than Pensacola).   ^[2]   Muse’s paper describes 20,000 African Americans in the city (out of 101,000 total residents), between 20,000-25,000 Cubans, and “about 2,000 Italians and Spaniards.” Muse’s essay describes the various neighborhoods in Tampa such as Ybor and West Tampa. Tampa’s multicultural background, fueled by the work provided in the cigar industry, allowed for cultural sharing, so much so that many African Americans spoke in Spanish with their Cuban and Spanish neighbors. This look into the cosmopolitan nature of the city adds nuance to Tampa’s history; while many cities in the South were segregated, leading to very different experiences for African Americans and white Americans, what is unique to Tampa is the integration of Cuban, Italian, and Spanish cultures into the region.

A recital put on by the WPA Music Academy on April 16th, 1942, at the Italian Club in Ybor City shows the WPA’s attempt to incorporate the performers’ various ethnic backgrounds into a more hegemonic American identity. The program features many patriotic songs, as well as “Spanish songs” performed on piano and sung by choruses. This multi-faceted performance seems to be an attempt to rectify Tampa’s multi-ethnic background with a newfound need for patriotism after America’s entry into the Second World War.

During the war, the WPA’s mission shifts from collecting of data to providing services to the community and, most importantly, to providing entertainment for soldiers and officers at MacDill Field (later to be named MacDill Air Force Base). “Music is in the air at MacDill Field,” reads one report, “[t]he defense program feels that the enlisted men are entitled to recreation and entertainment, and the WPA Music Project is doing its part to provide a suitable program of music."  ^[3]  

The WPA’s primary focus, in the spirit of a post-New Deal sense of social responsibility, was to bring music education to those who may not be able to afford it, and to bring jobs to musicians who found themselves out of work with the advent of canned music in newly created sound movies. The project concerned itself with civic and classical music training, but the shift to “sweet’ jazz in the war period shows a concern for keeping the moral of the troops high. One essay by writer James B. Riley laments the fact that jazz and more popular contemporary forms cannot replace the music of the 1890s that many Tampa residents hold dear, however, the writer reconciles the adaptation of jazz by asserting the duty of education of residents and the entertainment of troops as viable artistic outputs for the WPA.

Unfortunately, the ideals of patriotism in wartime America could not unite a segregated nation, even with the influence of federally backed projects like the WPA and the Air Field. An author-less, handwritten note describes a considerable difference in the music provided for and by whites, and the music provided for and by “negroes.” The ensembles are described as orchestras, but the instrumentation suggests that these “orchestras” are jazz bands. The “White Orchestra” used the instrumentation of three violins, three trumpets, three saxophones, one piano, one guitar, one “baseviol [sic],” and one drum kit. The inclusion of violins suggests a “sweet” group, most likely playing jazz ballads, Tin Pan Alley tunes, or patriotic music. The “Negro Orchestra” appears to have been a jazz combo, consisting of five musicians: a bassist, a pianist, a saxophonist, a trumpeter, and a drummer.

The notable difference in instrumentation suggests many things. The “Negro Orchestra” requires considerably fewer musicians, this could suggest a lack of availability of African American musicians, or it could suggest a lack of funding to provide for a larger group of African American musicians. Given the considerable difference in instrumentation, the genre of music and types of songs that are able to be played vary considerably, demonstrating that the segregated nature of the music encompassed even musical genre. While this understanding of a segregated south and of the segregation of popular music is not a new one, it is surprising to see this type of segregation being practiced at a federal level, by federal employees, especially given the effort during the wartime to unite Americans.

The nuance of Tampa’s role in this becomes evident when examining the venues provided in the handwritten note. The Enlisted Men’s Club is a venue available to both groups, but that is where the overlap ends. The White Orchestra could play at MacDill, but the Negro Orchestra is relegated to the mess halls. What is most interesting, however, is the inclusion of other ethnicities’ venues in the list of available places for the Negro Orchestra. In addition to the mess halls, the orchestra could play at the Cuban Center and the Catholic Center, revealing a level of nuance in the racial and ethnic dynamics is one that seems to be unique to Tampa’s history.

  ^[1]   Diggs, Paul, “Sanctified Church,” (WPA Archives, University of South Florida, 1938), 1-4.

  ^[2]   Muse, Viola B. “Negro Ethnography” (WPA Archives, University of South Florida, 1936). 1-9.

  ^[3]   (WPA Archives, University of South Florida).