Nature of the Book

A Smithsonian Libraries and Archives Exhibition

What makes a book? 

Throughout history, books were handwritten, printed, bound, and decorated using a wide variety of materials from the natural world: leather coverings, mineral pigments, innovative recipes for inks, and paper made from plants. Influenced by the scarcity and abundance of commodities, global trade and economics, thrift, and fashion, books could vary greatly in terms of materials, construction, and purpose. 

Luxury, Ingenuity, Necessity, and Thrift

Books produced in the West from 1450 to 1850 made extensive—and sometimes surprising—use of local animal, vegetable, and mineral products. Livestock provided leather and glue. The flax plant made paper, and oil for ink. Copper was used for both engraving and coloring illustrations.

Global resources and traditions were also essential to the European book.

Trade routes from Asia introduced paper made from plant sources to the wider world.

From the Middle East and North Africa, luxury leathers, marbled endpapers, and gold tooling set the standard for high-quality book bindings.

Rare pigments and gold imported through conquest or trade elevated the artistry of the handmade book.

Bindings

Early books could be purchased unbound. Owners hired bookbinders, who might use wood from local trees and leather from livestock, or more luxurious imported materials. Bindings could be practical and plain, or lavish works of art. Bindings can tell us a lot about a book’s purpose, an owner’s preferences, and an artisan’s skill. They also offer clues about where they were bound.

Calfskin

Domesticated cattle raised for meat and milk offered a local source for bookbinding leather in Europe. Tanned calfskin offered a smooth durable surface, ideal for decoration. The marbled pattern on this calfskin is achieved with natural acids.

Pigskin

Pig farming provided a source for sturdy bookbinding leather in Germanic Europe. Pigskin was often tawed, not tanned, resulting in a whitish appearance. 

Although this book was printed in Rome, its wealthy Austrian owner, whose crest is inlaid in silver on the cover, likely had it bound close to home.

Book bound in tawed pigskin — Francisco Hernández *Nova plantarum, animalium et mineralium Mexicanorum historia* Rome, 1651

Goatskin

Goatskin was imported to Europe via Italian ports trading with North Africa. Called morocco leather, it was easily dyed bright colors and decorated with gold.

Goatskin bindings with ornate gold tooling, long a tradition in Arabic book design, became increasingly popular by the 1700s. These traditions, still practiced today, would have lasting influence on the design of fine bindings throughout Europe.

Left: Giulio Cesare Vanini, *Amphitheatrvm æternæ providentiæ divino-magicvm.* Printed in Lyon, France, 1615; bound 1700s. Right: Qurʾan (manuscript). Likely Syrian, later 1800s. Read the Book ➣

Parchment

Parchment, made from sheep, calf, and goat skins that were soaked in a lime solution, then stretched on a frame and scraped smooth, was used to make book bindings. It was also the primary material for book pages in Europe through the 15th century. As printing became widespread, medieval manuscripts were retired, and their discarded skins were recycled into other uses, including book covers.  

Hides and Bones

Nothing was wasted. Leather and parchment scraps produced hide glue, bones were carved into tools and clasps, and charred bone made into powdered pigments.

^{Bone folders, leather and parchment scraps, hide glue granules, and bone black pigment}

Leather and parchment scraps, bonefolder, hide glue crystals, and powdered bone black.

European Hardwood

Hardwood trees such as beech and oak were once an abundant resource in Northern Europe, providing wood for ships, furniture, homes—and bookbindings.

This early 16th century book is bound in pigskin over wood boards. The decorative deer stamped on the pigskin links it to a bookbinder in southwest Germany. 

Book with wooden boards, pigskin spine, and metal clasps — Aristotle, *De Anima* and assorted commentaries Printed in Venice and Haguenau, 1508-1513 Gift of the Burndy Library

Bookbinding in Early America

Thin pieces of planed wood called scaleboard, or scabbard, were commonly used as book covers in early America, even as industries freed from British control flourished. A patchworked sheepskin covering provides further protection.

Joshua Leavitt, *Easy Lessons in Reading* Watertown, New York, 1829

Jeweled Bindings

The London bookbinding company Sangorski and Sutcliffe revived the medieval practice of jeweled bookbinding for wealthy clients in the early 1900s. Here, the clusters of amethysts resemble grapes.

^{John Addington Symonds} ^{Wine, Women, and Song} ^{London, 1884; bound about 1907}

Book with richly gold-tooled green morocco leather (goatskin) and amethysts on a black background

Mother-of-Pearl

The iridescent layer lining mollusk shells used for this decorative cover reflects a long-standing artistic tradition from the Middle East and Asia. 

^{Mother-of-pearl album} ^{Likely European, late 19th century} ^{Gift of Mrs. Henry J. Bernheim}

Black-lip pearl oyster (*Pinctada margaritifera*) Pacific Ocean, Malaysia National Museum of Natural History (NMNH 632806)

Victorian era album with a mother of pearl cover and red velvet spine

Japanese Paper Covers

Japanese books were traditionally covered in paper. Poorer-quality paper was layered for strength, with an outer layer of colorfully dyed and decorated paper. These books' subtle pearlescent finish comes from the ground mineral muscovite—also known as mica—applied to the surface.

*Koetsu utaibon hyakuban* 光悦謡本百番 Edo period, 1600-1868 Read the Book ➣

Paper

In first-century China, early papermakers created sheets of paper from pulped plant fibers. As the craft moved west, the materials used shifted to discarded linen and cotton rags. Paper is easily printed, folded, and sewn into books. Eventually it replaced parchment made from animal skins. By the 1850s, paper was being made from less expensive wood pulp in factories.

Japanese Paper

The inner bark from the kōzo plant (the paper mulberry tree) has been used in East Asian papermaking  for almost 2000 years. Kōzo has long been domesticated and used to create pages for books, along with other plant sources like gampi and mitsumata. 

_{Katsushika Hokusai 葛飾北齋} _{Denshin kaishu Hokusai manga 北齋漫畵} _{Bishū 尾州} _{Late Edo period (1780-1868)} _{Read the Book ➣}

Dried Kōzo Fibers (*Broussonetia papyrifera*)

Page from a Japanese book featuring illustrations of fish and other sea life.

Wood Block Printing

Printing from wood blocks originated in Asia but was commonly used to illustrate European books until the early 1800s.

Japanese printers used cherry wood for its fine and hard texture. Text and images were carved with chisels while barens pressed the paper onto the inked surface. 

Carved wood block used for book printing. — Woodblock used in the production of *Kannon reijōki zue* Shimada Masataka 島田雅喬, artist Japan, around 1845 National Museum of Asian Art, Smithsonian Institution Freer Study Collection, Gift of David Mann M.A (FSC-W-32)

Flax

The adaptable and versatile common flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) revolutionized papermaking. It thrives in most climates and was used for papermaking from the Middle East to Europe.

Combed Flax and Linen Rags 

Making paper from flax was an elaborate process. Flax stalks were first dried, soaked, combed, spun into threads, and woven into linen textiles.

Discarded linen rags were then collected, shredded, and beaten into a pulp from which paper was made. 

Linen thread and cords spun from the stems of flax plants were used to sew gathered sheets of folded paper together.

^{Processed flax fibers}

Silk Threads

Asian and Islamic bookbinding often used dyed silk threads spun from cocoons of the domestic silk moth (Bombyx mori).

_{Binding sewn with silk, silk thread, spun silk, and silkworm cocoons}

Japanese book binding, silk threads, cords, and silkworm cocoons

Metal Type 

Moveable type made with a lead alloy was introduced in the 15th century. With the new technology, texts could be printed in high volume, encouraging the rise of literacy and learning. 

_{Replica 17th century composing stick with cast metal type} _{Courtesy of Raymond S. Nelson, Jr.}

Fabriano Paper

As the printing press changed European book production in the late 1400s, paper mills grew to meet demands.

The Fabriano paper mill dates from the 13th century, when papermaking traditions reached Italy from the Arab world. Fabriano paper is recognized for its clarity, brightness, and flexibility—still visible in this 600-year-old book.

Page from a 16th century book with an illustration of a siege engine — Roberto Valturio, De re militari Paris, 1532 Gift of the Burndy Library Read the Book ➣

Cotton

Cotton rags surpassed linen as the primary source for fabric, and consequently paper, after 1790.

_{Cotton Bolls (Gossypium hirsutum)}

In the American South, cotton production grew rapidly due to the invention of the cotton gin. The region's economic dependency on the labor of enslaved people grew with it. America was Britain's primary source for cotton until the Civil War.

Book illustration of a flowering cotton plant — Cotton (Gossypium barbadense) Sydenham Edwards, *The Botanical Register* London, 1815 Gift of John Donnell Smith

Alternative Paper Sources  

Jacob Christian Schäffer sought alternatives to linen rag paper. He published his findings, which included 82 handmade paper samples from a variety of local natural sources.

Wasp Nests

The paper wasp’s habits of chewing wood fiber to create pulp for nests would eventually inspire the development of wood pulp paper in the 1800s.

Wood Pulp

Parts of Matthias Koops’ experimental book were printed on wood-based paper, probably the first known instance of bleached wood pulp paper in English book production. 

Page of a book with letterpress description of the paper it's printed on. — Matthias Koops *Historical Account of the Substances Which Have Been Used to Describe Events, and to Convey Ideas, from the Earliest Date, to the Invention of Paper* London, 1801 Read the Book ➣

Pigments

Colorants used in inks, paints, and dyes came from a variety of natural sources, including clays, gems, plants, and insects. In books, colorful pigments were used to beautify, convey prestige or value, or accurately represent the world. Through research and chance, scientists have since discovered the hidden toxins in some pigments which craftsmen and artists unknowingly relied on. 

Inks

Carbon-based inks from charred plants and lamp residue have been used for thousands of years. Adding linseed oil from the flax plant made these inks suitable for use on the printing press. Oak galls (Quercus infectoria) were used in the production of manuscript ink.

_{Oak galls, linseed oil, and hardwood charcoal}

Jar of linseed oil, oak galls, and hardwood charcoal

Arsenic

Scheele’s Green, an inexpensive dye produced in the 1700s and 1800s, used poisonous arsenic mixed with copper to create a brilliant green popularly used in textiles, wallpaper—and book edges. 

Two books with green text block edges — Ludwig August Emmerling, *Lehrbuch der Mineralogie* Giessen, 1799–1802

Red Lead

Red lead is found naturally as the mineral minium. Its orange-red hue was often recreated by roasting white lead, as seen in the robe. Lead’s toxic properties led to its decline in use. 

Illustration in Japanese manuscript featuring five men, two on horseback — *Tsuru no soshi* 鶴のそうし (manuscript) Early Edo period (1600-1700), Japan Read the Book ➣

Ochres and Earth Pigments 

Yellow, red, and brown pigments could be made from iron-rich clays. For accuracy, Sowerby preferred the use of mercury and arsenic-based paints to color his depictions of ochre specimens.

Book illustration of yellow ochre specimens and accompanying scientific description — James Sowerby *British Mineralogy, or, Coloured Figures Intended to Elucidate the Mineralogy of Great Britain* London, 1802–1817 Read the Book ➣

Verdigris

Blue-green verdigris is made of crystals formed on copper exposed to acid, such as vinegar. While corrosive, it was still used to accurately capture color, as in this scientific illustration of a butterfly (Morpho achilles).

^{George Shaw, The Naturalist's Miscellany, or Coloured Figures of Natural Objects} ^{London, 1789–1813} ^{Gift of Robert W. Chanler} ^{Read the Book ➣}

Book illustration of blue and black butterfly and accompanying descriptive text

Prized Color

Valuable cochineal, azurite, and gold are used to color this petition for noble status for a Spanish family. 

^{Petition concerning the noble status of the de Ardança (Ardanza) family of Sigüenza, Spain. Manuscript, Spain, 1604} ^{Read the Book ➣}

Detail of hand-colored manuscript featuring a man’s portrait and lettering

Cochineal

The cochineal beetle (Dactylopius coccus), imported by the Spanish from Mexico and South America, is harvested from the prickly pear. The crushed insects produce a deep red dye.

^{H. Beck} ^{Samling af afbildninger af naturhistoriske gjenstande til brug ved underviisning} ^{Copenhagen, 1833} ^{Read the Book ➣}

Hand holding petri dish with dried cochineal beetles — Dried cochineal beetles

Book illustration of cochineal beetles and a cactus

Azurite

Azurite, a blue copper ore, was an alternative to rare lapis lazuli. Popular through the 1600s, azurite later lost favor to the affordable new synthetic color Prussian blue.

_{Petition concerning the noble status of the de Ardança (Ardanza) family of Sigüenza, Spain. Manuscript, Spain, 1604} _{Read the Book ➣}

Azurite with malachite and siderite, Germany   National Museum of Natural History (NMNH B7994)

Page of manuscript with lettering and hand-colored decorative border

Gold

Gold was used to decorate manuscript pages and paper covers, and for decorative tooling on leather book bindings.

_{Tsuru no soshi 鶴のそうし (manuscript)} _{Japan, Early Edo period, 1600-1700} _{Read the Book ➣}

Detail of gold tooling on a red goatskin binding (Vanini, *Amphitheatrvm æternæ*, 1615)

Paper cover of Japanese book decorated with gold, with a silk lettered label

Qurʾans and other religious manuscripts were considered prized possessions and the use of gold was a sign of their importance. 

_{Qurʾan (selections)} _{Qajar-period Iran, 1800’s} _{Gift of Bruce Beckwith, Beckwith-Browning-Peterson Teratology Collection} _{Read the Book ➣}

Manuscript with hand-written Arabic text and gold illumination

A Case Study

Mark Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (1729–1747)

Mark Catesby’s landmark work documenting the animals and plants he encountered on his North American travels in the early 1700s is a fascinating combination of luxury, frugality, and determination.  It is also the first fully illustrated and comprehensive study of the flora and fauna of the American colonies.

Catesby financed the ambitious book himself, producing it over the course of 19 years at considerable cost. Soliciting subscribers in advance ensured a paying readership. He issued the book in 11 parts, each helping to fund the next. An estimated 200 copies were produced, each with unique traits. This remarkable publication is a work of art, a work of science, and a rich picture of the complexities of 18th century book production. Early books, such as Catesby's Natural History, were made from natural materials in the hands of skilled artisans. These traditional arts are still practiced today. 

The Binding

The first owner of this book was Cromwell Mortimer, one of the original subscribers, and Secretary of the Royal Society, Great Britain's national academy of sciences, from 1730-1752. He was identified by the coat of arms and stag’s head crest on the custom binding.

He opted for calfskin cut in a diamond pattern, typical of luxury leathers imported from Russia.

_{Mark Catesby} _{The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands} _{London, 1729–1747} _{Gift of Marcia Brady Tucker (presumed)} _{Read the Book ➣}

Detail of gold tooling and owner's crest on front cover of Catesby's Natural History

The art of gold tooling uses thin sheets of gold leaf adhered to the leather with egg white. The decorative designs are permanently affixed to the binding with heated brass stamps.

_{Sheets of gold leaf and bookbinder's stamps}

Bookbinder using tools to apply gold to a leather book — Gold Tooling   Samuel Feinstein, bookbinder

The Owner

The original owner waited the full 19 years until Catesby’s work was complete to have his set bound.

He had carefully saved the printed prospectus, list of subscribers, and binding instructions, which he had bound into the book.

_{Advertisement announcing an additional twenty plates and the binder's note}

Printed advertisement and binder’s note pasted onto blank page in Catesby volume

The Marbled Endpapers

Marblers use dyes, water thickened by additives, and tools like a marbler’s comb to create decorative papers.

Paper marbler running a marbler’s comb through colored inks — Paper Marbling   Sarah Noreen, Pyramid Atlantic Art Center

This style of endpaper was found in higher-quality English bindings in the later 1700s, when this book was bound. Most were imported to England from Europe.

_{Marbled endpapers used in this copy of Catesby's Natural History}

Boiled Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), a kind of seaweed, was a common thickening agent used in European paper marbling.

^{William H. Harvey} ^{Phycologia Britannica, or, A History of British sea-weeds} ^{London, 1846–1851}

The Paper

Early papermakers can be identified by their watermarks. Watermarks are words or designs woven into the metal screens in molds used to make paper. The patterns are visible when the paper is held up to light. Numerous paper stocks were used over the 19 years it took to complete the book.

_{Watermark of papermaker Jean Villedary, France}

Papermaker lifting a papermaking mould full of wet pulp — Papermaking    Cynthia Delaney Lollis, ETC Press

Detail of backlit page showing the papermaker’s watermark

The Etching

To save money, Catesby created most of the illustrations himself. He learned the etching process, transferring his original paintings to coated copper plates with an etching needle. The copper exposed by the needle is lightly eroded in an acid bath, creating delicate grooves to hold the ink for printing.

^{Etching of Oenanthe Americana, the yellow breasted chat (Icteria virens) signed by Mark Catseby with a stylized "MC"}

Printmaker etching a copper plate — Etching    Angus Fisher, artist and printmaker

Detail of an ethching of a plant's roots and the artist's signature

The Hand-Coloring

Accurately depicting these species was important; most had never been seen by Catesby’s readers.

Partially hand-colored print beside paint pots and brush — Hand Coloring    Angus Fisher, artist and printmaker

Vermillion, a mercury-red pigment made from the volcanic mineral cinnabar, colors the head of the now extinct Parrot of Carolina (Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis). For the body, he used iron-rich yellow ochre mixed with the first synthetic pigment, Prussian blue.

Hand-colored etching of a Carolina parakeet

Catesby captured the coloring of the Pigeon of Passage (passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius) well before its extinction in the early 1900s. The color of the breast and belly are a combination of red and white, sourced from traditional lead-based paints.

Hand-colored etching of a passenger pigeon

Catesby described the head and neck of the Painted Finch (painted bunting, Passerina ciris) as “ultramarine blew,” a color sourced from rare lapis lazuli. Instead, he used Prussian Blue, a newer synthetic pigment. The bird’s body is colored with a red lead paint.

Hand-colored etching of a painted bunting

Catesby wrote that the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) reaches the age of two before “it arrives at the most perfect color.”  This pink hue is a mixture of vermillion, a mercury-red pigment made from the volcanic mineral cinnabar, mixed with lead white.

The Pigments

X-ray fluorescence testing can help us determine what pigments were used in the colored illustrations by measuring the fluorescence, or radiation, given off by substances such as mercury, lead, and iron.

That data, combined with a knowledge of the history of pigment production, helps us identify specific colors.

^{Smithsonian conservation scientist Gwenaelle Kavich tests pigments in the Catesby volume in 2017.}

Conservation scientist performing XRF testing on Catesby volume

The Printing

Smithsonian Libraries and Archives curator Leslie Overstreet has extensively researched the printing history of Catesby’s Natural History of Carolina. She has examined copies throughout the world and uncovered many intriguing details. Overstreet identified the uncredited printer as Godfrey Smith based on unique decorated printed elements.

_{Printed page featuring the headpiece and decorated initial L that helped identify the printer}

Typesetter’s hand holding a composing stick — Typesetting    Val Lucas, Bowerbox Press

Letterpress printed page with text, decorated initials, and printer’s ornaments

About the Exhibition

Visit Nature of the Book in person A Smithsonian Libraries and Archives exhibition at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History Ground Floor Location Map 10th St. and Constitution Ave NW Washington, DC 20560

Through September 3, 2024 Hours: 10:00 AM - 5:30 PM (summer hours may vary)