Wainfleet Bog Restoration Project

This summary report represents a collaborative effort among a delegation of experts, for the purpose of communicating scientific expertise to land managers and decision makers. Our delegation is collectively working toward a common goal: seeing the Wainfleet Bog ecosystem in a positive state of recovery.

The Wainfleet bog ecosystem is located in the Great Lakes lowlands region of Canada near Port Colborne, ON (42°54' 29.16'' N, 79° 17' 44.88'' W). The bog formed from a post glacial lake, and over thousands of years infilled with organic matter - primarily sphagnum and coarse woody material (i.e., cedar, spruce, tamarack conifer forests; Donaldson, 1987; Pengelly, 1990; Nagy, 1992; Tinkler, 1994).

This bog was once a "domed bog ecosystem" meaning the center was higher in elevation than the surrounding lands, forming a headwater area (Nagy, 1992; MacDonald, 1992). The feature gradually transitioned to a lower elevation within a seasonal open water feature (i.e., a moat) formed from groundwater seepage. The Wainfleet Bog is therefore an ombrotrophic ecosystem, meaning the site is naturally entirely precipitation driven (Browning, 2015). Water enters through the ground surface and is stored within the organic basin, with seasonal excess forming the edge moat through seepage areas.

The Wainfleet bog is also located upon the Six Nations lands as affirmed by the 1701 Fort Albany Treaty, and is therefore recognized as traditional harvesting territory of the Haudenosaunee people. Because this site houses a community of native flora and fauna, and a variety of species at risk, the preservation and recovery of this sensitive ecosystem represents a cultural duty to the First Nations community.

The Wainfleet Bog today is known for its historical impacts from drainage and peat harvest.

Drainage began in the 1800s with the construction of the first Welland Shipping Canal which remains today as the nearest lowest elevation point for surface water drainage (Tinkler, 1994; Yagi and Frohlich, 1998). The 1930s represents a dry climatic period within an agricultural dominant region where the wettest, hazardous, or rockiest natural features were the only areas not converted to agriculture. 

The remaining natural features within the 1930’s landscape represent the core natural heritage features, as they would be the oldest and most ecologically intact. The earliest available (1934 black and white) air photo imagery provides clues to what the bog feature looked like before the drainage of the feature (see first image).

Drainage of the surrounding heavy clay soils was improved overtime by building larger and deeper interconnected channels and by adding subsurface tile drainage. Following 1934, (circa WW2) a portion of the Biederman drain was moved 300 m north from the farm fields into the bog moat (a natural meandering section; see above image). The 1965 aerial photo clearly shows that the Biederman drain was dug into the moat and interior ditches were added to connect to the deeper Biederman Drain allowing the interior bog water (held in organic peat soils) to deplete. Drier site conditions are evident throughout the interior showing linear inundations of cut peat soil as well as fields of bare ground from suction dredging of peat. Therefore, the action of moving the drain into the bog moat facilitated the drainage of the Wainfleet Bog. 

Today the Wainfleet Bog is a highly impacted system containing a partially-mined peatland within an actively maintained municipal drainage system. The wetland complex is approximately 1870 ha containing cultural barren and naturalized peatlands, swamps, marshes and some remnant bog vegetation communities (MacDonald, 1992; MNRF, 2009; Browning, 2015). The main physical structure of this ecosystem remains the same, which is a depression-filled with organic soil within a clay lined aquitard. The system today remains as an ombrotrophic ecosystem (NPCA, 1997; Browning, 2015; MNRF 2017). However, the central dome feature is lower in elevation from drainage and past peat mining and most of the natural channel moat features that transitioned to the agricultural areas have been replaced by a deep, straightened channel which is the municipal drainage system (Fig. 3). 

Organic soils have a high affinity to moisture. However, the transmissivity of the peat soils, which is the ability of moisture to move through peat, is impacted by the past land use and the proximity and depth of the drainage features (Crowe, 2000; Browning, 2015). The greater distance a drainage feature is from the peat soil, the less impact there is to soil transmissivity. The greater porosity of the peat means the greater likelihood there is for drainage impacts because water would be more mobile through the peat (Hayward and Clymo, 1982; Quinton et al., 2009; Rezanezhad et al., 2010; Rezanezhad et al., 2016). Small pores would have less water mobility. However, drained, drought impacted and compacted peat soils from a degraded peatland may not hold water easily especially when inundated by intense storm events- resulting in a peaky discharge hydrograph (Hoag and Price, 1997). Peat transmissivity, proximity to drainage features and climate change forecasts of intensifying storm events are important considerations for ecosystem restoration.  

Although peat mining has ceased in the Wainfleet Bog, the perimeter drains are managed by the municipalities (Wainfleet Township and City of Port Colborne) as municipal drains for agricultural and rural land use on the surrounding clay fields. Management requires the removal of obstructions to drain flow including the removal of beaver dams and trapping of beaver that are using the municipal drainage feature as habitat. Beavers are present within the bog feature and connected waterways and are especially attracted to the deeper municipal drain that connects to the Welland Canal because it is an open water feature and a dispersal corridor. Beavers are a natural part of bog communities in Canada and are recognized as an important keystone species for creating wetlands and maintaining wetland water levels (Environment Canada, 2019). 

Today, municipal drains largely run nearby, alongside and within the remaining bog feature forming a sudden unnaturally deep area close to the wetland edge. In addition, there are intersections where interior ditches, trails or wildlife pathways originating from within the interior peatland connect to the perimeter municipal drains creating new connections that enhance Wainfleet Bog drainage year-round. The perimeter drains are as much as 1-2m below grade, and through this system of ditches and drains, the bog can quickly surface drain down. The effects of this drainage system shorten the hydroperiod of this wetland and reduce the seasonal water storage capacity. 

In addition to the global benefits for re-storing peatlands and sequestering carbon, healthy peatlands also support rare and endangered species habitat. However, unhealthy peatlands can contribute to species declines. The Wainfleet bog is home to several species-at-risk including four turtle species and two species of snakes.

The drainage effects on this wetland’s water level cycles impacts reptile habitat to the point where it becomes detrimental to species-at-risk survivorship (Yagi et al., 2020). Overwinter kill, and summer wildfires related to the bog’s hydrology have been identified as key factors impacting these populations and this proposal seeks to remove the drainage impacts on these species-at-risk and their critical habitat. 

Promoting ongoing drainage of peatlands is inconsistent with recent climate change predictions which forecast an increased frequency of drought contributing to conditions that promote peat fires (IPCC, Climate Change, 2013; Nugent et al., 2019; Tanneberger et al., 2021). The main influence on predicting peat fires is the soil moisture content with respect to the dry organic content. Peat fires spread when the water content decreases below 150% MC (Guitart et al., 2016). MC is a unitless percentage derived from the gravimetric moisture content of the sample per mass of dry peat (Guitart et al., 2016).

Healthy peatlands are the largest natural carbon sinks and sequester 0.37 gigatons of CO2 per year- the largest vegetation type that stores carbon in the world, However, degraded peatlands contribute green house gas emissions about 6-10% of the anthropogenic contributions worldwide (IUCN, 2017; Peters, 2020). For every 10cm of drained peat a bog emits 5t of CO2 per hectare per year (Peters, 2020; Tanneberger et al., 2021). The current managed drainage regime affects the bog ecosystem (1800 ha), and the water table drops 30 to 50 cm which contributes an extra 200,000 t CO2 emitted per year. This is equivalent to 43,000 car emissions per yr (EPA, 2018). 

Maintaining water-saturation of the peat is the primary restoration goal for Burns Bog (Howie et al., 2018). In this case, ditch blocking focused on the peripheral and interior ditches to maximize water storage from annual precipitation events (Howie et al., 2018). Restoration goals involved maintaining a high-water table throughout the ecosystem and monitoring water level responses to the ditch blocking, particularly along the perimeter, to retain as much water as possible and to restore sphagnum from the edges inward to restart the peat-forming process. The peripheral drains represent the deepest drained areas containing drier than normal vegetation species, similar to Wainfleet Bog. However, this site did not have drains cutting into the natural moat feature as it does in Wainfleet. The Burns Bog restoration project was ultimately successful in accumulating sphagnum regrowth in the dry edge communities by blocking ditches and enhancing the peripheral moat.

Bogs are isolated wetland systems that have a stable water level with respect to inflow and outflow. Water moves vertically from the surface downward contributing to water storage within the peat. Depending on the transmissivity of the peat and surface elevations or doming, water may flow from the upper layers downward into storage or it may flow laterally through seepage toward an open water feature or moat. Most bogs are entirely dependent upon precipitation as the only water source with evapotranspiration as the main water loss. 

A simple water balance equation for a healthy bog ecosystem would be, [Input = Storage – Output]; where Input = precipitation as snow and rain. Storage depends on the peat volume and transmissivity of the peat, and the rate of groundwater recharge to the underlying bedrock groundwater system. Output = evapotranspiration + seepage (if present). Drainage reduces the water storage and increases water output of the wetland (Wilcox et al., 2006).

When Beavers first colonized the Wainfleet bog from 2006 to 2010 water storage function increased overall (Fig. 4). From 2018 to present, the Wainfleet Bog water storage function is reduced seasonally by ongoing drain maintenance that begins in April each year (Fig. 5). Drain maintenance initiates a reduction in ground water levels across the site and coincides with reduced precipitation events, resulting in reduced water storage function from spring to fall. There is also a lag in response to drainage effects with areas that are further from the drain having a slower response (NPCA 5: Fig. 5). Ultimately the entire site responds to increased drainage and reduced water storage over the summer months. ANSI WW20 minimum water level almost matched the Biederman drain water level in August 2020 following widespread drain cleanout and beaver trapping. Spring drainage is followed by beavers rebuilding dams in the fall which increases levels during winter. Declining water levels in the spring and increasing water levels in the winter are not natural cycles for wildlife.

From 2018 to present, 8Trees staff were able to monitor water well data across the bog feature (NPCA, MECP and private lands) and simultaneously keep track of the location of beaver dams and the timing of beaver dam removal by the municipalities (Fig. 6). The map below shows the locations of the monitored wells across the site.

Management Plan Recommendations (NPCA, 1997)

The current Management Plan for the Wainfleet Bog was written in 1997 and outlines several restoration goals. The goals relevant to this proposal are outlined below:

1.     Restore the watershed hydrological regime to near natural conditions as to sustain the bog.

2.     Initiate a study to determine the present status of the hydrologic regime on a watershed basis. Aspects of water draw down from peripheral drains should also be assessed, including extent.

3.     Relate hydrological studies to vegetative composition to understand the linkages between hydrological changes and the effectiveness of restoration efforts.

4.     Further to the findings of the above study, a means of increasing an evaluating the effect of a higher water table on the bog should be evaluated.

5.     Monitor water quality of waterways adjacent to the bog for affects of pollution, including nutrient levels.

6.     Strongly encourage scientific research which is non-destructive to its species to increase the understanding and further the science and implementation of restoration techniques on bog ecosystems.

7.     Research to fulfill the following identified data gaps are to be given priority (summarized):

7a.     Further flora baseline data for monitoring purposes

7b.     Further fauna information, particularly amphibians, reptiles, birds and insects are required for baseline data

7c.     Develop and establish an on-going long-term ecological monitoring program to determine the occurring changes of the site ecosystem and effectively monitor public use and its impact on this ecosystem.

7d.     Encourage research of alternative agricultural practices (i.e. drainage) which adversely affect the bog and its ecosystem

8.     Provide a diverse habitat suitable to a bog ecosystem, emphasizing the provision of long-term healthy ecosystem addressing the management of all species as opposed to one or two species.

9.     Determine species habitat requirements and develop a correlation between population dynamics and the physical ecological of the site.

10.  Control natural fires where it is deemed to be a hazard to an adjacent residence. The restoration of hydrological conditions should also assist in reducing the fire risk of the area.

11.  Review the overall management plan requirements on a 5-year basis.

Unfortunately, the Management Plan has yet to be updated with the recommendations, data, and information collected since 1997.

Several important studies have occurred on site since 1997, particularly the hydrology and vegetation study initiated in 1998 (Browning, 2015), the species-at-risk population monitoring work (Yagi and Tervo, 2005), and the research on species-at-risk population dynamics and their critical habitat function (Yagi, K., 2010; Yagi, A., 2020). 

Mark Browning Thesis, PhD (1998-2008)

Mark Browning’s experimental work was crucial in determining the effectiveness of an elevated water table in promoting bog vegetation growth, including Sphagnum moss, and for identifying the different catchments within the feature (Fig 2.1 from Browning, 2015). Peat dams were installed across many interior ditches in control and experimental areas, to investigate their effectiveness in raising the water table. While the peat dams proved to marginally increase water levels, it was not until 2006 when beavers re-established into the watershed and created dams throughout the site, that a significant increase in water levels were observed. Years of beaver activity since then has shown very clearly how effective these animals are at creating dams, and ultimately, at creating wetlands. Unfortunately, the experimental peat dams have almost all been destroyed by the beaver activity, leaving only beaver dams placed within the site and within the Biederman Drain to retain water in the peatland. Mark’s research also delineated the catchment for the ecological trap area (Central peat mined area) and the control point at the eastern most outflow (see Fig 2.1 from Browning, 2015).

Recommendations from this research include:

1.     The main interior beaver dams should be maintained artificially if the animals are trapped out, disappear or move on to new locations. These have been effective at raising the ground and surface water levels and elevating the volumetric water content of the surface peat. Most of the original peat dams have been channelled through by beaver and can no longer be relied upon to sustain the current hydrological conditions.

2.     New peat dams now need to be constructed in the south-western, north-western and eastern portions of the bog, unaffected by the previous experimental drain blockings, to speed the establishment of the secondary successional community of wetland generalists and bog obligates that has developed in the experimental areas. We know from the experimental areas that a simple 2-meter-long peat dam is not sufficient in the long term. Dams need to extend further back up the drain channels and be designed with smaller “wing dams” or bunds extending outward from the main structure to prevent overflow and hold back more water, much the way that beavers construct their dams.

3.     To prevent further drying out of the wider bog feature and slow the encroachment of the non-native European Birch (Betula pendula) more water needs to be held back around the margins of the bog instead of being carried away in the surround drains. Initially, this thesis recommended “half dams” be constructed in appropriate locations on the main surround drains to achieve this without unduly flooding neighbouring farmland. However, the option of moving a portion of Biederman drain away from the bog margin entirely would be even more effective at achieving both of these goals.

4.     A lag time of approximately 1.5 yrs can be expected between initial peat dam construction and noticeable increases in surface peat volumetric water content. A further 2 + years will be required before the development of the secondary successional bog plant community. Extensive seeding or transplanting is therefore not recommended immediately after the blockage of drains and the moving of the surround drain. Digging of shallow channels leading back from drains into the interior of the drier peat fields which have wide ditch spacings, and the creation of a hummock/hollow microtopography as was done in the experimental areas will enhance the diversity and rate of development of this community.

5.     Restricted plant dispersal, rather than harsh environmental conditions or competition, appears to be the main factor limiting further colonization of this secondary successional community by new bog species. After the restoration of an ideal hydrological regime and the development of the secondary wetland community, sowings, plantings or spreading of stem fragments (in the case of Sphagnum mosses) may be necessary from local sources within the ANSI and other undisturbed perimeter areas. Consideration should be given to introducing key bog species that were known historically from Wainfleet but are no longer present in the local species pool. These would include black spruce (Picea mariana), tamarack (Larix laricina) and pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea). The nearest source of seed for these species is likely the “Summit Bog” near Copetown approximately 80 km away.

This acknowledges the importance of the beavers and the effectiveness of beaver dams and elevating water levels within this ecosystem. This research addresses several goals of the Site Management Plan, especially #2, #3, #4, and #7a (see above list). An updated Management should bring forward the recommendations from this thesis and outline next steps in determining best practices to maintain a stable, elevated water table within the site.

Population Monitoring Studies (1998-2016 by MNRF, and 2017-present by 8Trees Inc.)

-- Text removed due to data sensitivity. --

This research addresses goals #6, #7b, and #7c of the Site Management Plan, as listed above.

Katharine Yagi Thesis, MSc (2008-2010)

-- Text removed due to data sensitivity. --

Site Management recommendations from this research was to allow beaver activity to remain as is, or to control water levels to stabilize at or near the current levels to help sustain Sphagnum growth and optimal species-at-risk, habitat functions. Building an elevated boardwalk through flooded zones was suggested to help allow for recreational use of the site (Yagi et al., 2010).

This research addresses goals #6, #7b, #9 of the Site Management Plan, as listed above.

Anne Yagi Thesis, MSc (2012-2017)

Anne Yagi’s Masters research focused on investigating how snakes deal with flooding during hibernation underground. Comparing three species; Eastern gartersnakes, Northern Red-bellied snakes, and neonatal (baby) Massasaugas, it was found that all species cannot remain submerged underwater during hibernation, because they suffer an oxygen debt over very short time frames (2 hours) while in a forced dive at 5°C. In summary, this research shows that these species cannot survive overwinter underwater without access to a frost-free air space (i.e. life zone; see Fig. 1 from Yagi et al., 2020), and that a population decline is likely to occur when the habitat floods very quickly during the winter months when snakes cannot move to alternate locations.

Further, a population decline was estimated to have occurred in this Massasauga population due to the initial flooding events in fall of 2006 (Fig. 7 from Yagi et al., 2020).

Site Management recommendations from this research were to resolve the causes for drastic water fluctuations over the fall and winter seasons by maintaining beaver dams to keep flood-prone areas flooded. By doing this, the low-lying areas would not be chosen for hibernation by young, naïve snakes in the fall, and will lead to increased survival, supporting overall population recovery.

This research addresses goals #6, #7b, #7c, and #9 of the Site Management Plan, as listed above.

In the last 20 years the bog has experienced extreme ranges in site condition from dry/fire prone conditions to wet/flooded conditions, or cycles from dry to wet (Table 1). The fluctuations in water levels were most stabilized in 2008 and 2009 when beavers established several key dams within the interior and Biederman drain to the south. Unfortunately, beaver dams were removed in December 2010 and the site regressed to a drier state culminating in the first wild-fire event in 2012 since restoration and beaver re-colonization in the peatland feature. The wildfire event in 2012 coincided with a prolonged regional drought period. Interestingly, the previous drought period in 2007, when beaver dams were present did not result in wildfire.  The current drain maintenance and removal of beaver dams makes the site vulnerable to wildfire events during drought periods (2012 and 2016; see Table 1).

Wetlands and other aquatic or semi-aquatic environments exhibit repeatable seasonal hydrology patterns. In the temperate regions, water levels typically exhibit a bimodal hydrograph showing a larger increase in the spring during snow melt, a steady decline during the summer and a slight rise again in the fall with a steady or slight decline during winter (National Research Council, 1995). Terrestrial ecosystems usually have water levels well below the surface however may have a perched water table or vernal pooling in the spring depending on soil and microtopgraphy conditions. Vernal pooling typically remains for a few weeks depending on precipitation and refills over winter (Fig. 7).  

Managed systems, have different hydrographs which do not necessarily follow a natural seasonal pattern. For example, marshes that are managed for waterfowl production maintain a prolonged hydroperiod to sustain waterfowl activity, and every few years the dams are lowered or raised to change water levels to promote vegetation diversity (Fig. 7). Drained wetlands tend to have a shorter than natural hydroperiod overall. Actively drained wetlands with a beaver population tend to develop cycles in water levels that may not represent any natural system. While beaver colonization is beneficial to wetland development, the continuous removal of dams sets up cycles for flood and drought that are too frequent and therefore not natural. While reptiles are adapted to changing water levels during their active season, they rely on water level stability during their inactive season (i.e., hibernation). 

Reptiles are ectotherms that move about their habitat in response to environmental cues such as temperature and moisture gradients (Huey, 1982; Baldwin et al., 2006). Reptiles cannot survive winter in a frozen state and must rely upon locating thermally buffered hibernacula to survive winter (Gregory, 1982; Ultsch, 1989; Costanzo and Lee, 2013). Turtles are predominantly aquatic hibernators whereas snakes hibernate terrestrially or semi-terrestrially provided a life zone (i.e., a subterranean space that is frost- and flood-free) is maintained throughout winter (Yagi, 2020; Yagi et al., 2020). Reptiles often use site fidelity behaviour to re-locate previously used hibernation areas which is why they occupy a home range that includes these hibernation site features (Yagi and Tervo, 2005; Harvey and Weatherhead, 2006; Smith, 2009). Reptiles enter their hibernacula in the fall season (i.e., October to November in southern Ontario). 

In Wainfleet Bog, Massasaugas have been documented within their hibernacula as early as September and have been seen above the ground during winter thaw events (Yagi and Tervo, 2005). Massasaugas emerge from hibernation in May, depending on temperatures, and have been observed above ground as early as the first week of April at this site (Yagi, 2020).

Turtles have also been found near their hibernation site from September to November (Yagi and Yagi, 2018). This species is known to use Sphagnum hummocks, rock caverns, and existing burrows (e.g., made by muskrats) as hibernacula (Litzgus et al., 1999). In the Wainfleet bog, turtles have been observed using burrows in the banks of drains at a shallow depth (approx. 30 - 50 cm from surface), and therefore become vulnerable to declines in water levels during hibernation (Yagi, 2010). Although some turtles species can tolerate low oxygen levels during winter for a few months, they eventually require access to oxygen (Litzgus et al., 1999). Ideal hibernation habitat includes non- freezing semi aquatic spaces with an aerobic air space for ventilation or continuous oxygenated non-freezing aquatic environments to sustain cutaneous respiration via cloacal oxygen exchange (Yagi and Yagi, 2018).

The natural history of these species are important considerations for understanding ecological trap theory and how the ecological trap (central mined peatland) operates on these populations within the Wainfleet Bog ecosystem. Comparing the natural bog hydrograph to the Wainfleet bog hydrology from 2018 to 2020 shows a reverse hydrology pattern of declining spring water levels when beaver dams are removed and increasing water levels during winter hibernation period.

The Wainfleet Bog harbours the majority of the individuals in the Carolinian designatable unit (DU) for two endangered reptiles species. Due to the unstable water table, the low-lying areas, such as the mined portions owned by NPCA, are proving to act as an ecological trap to both endangered species, and likely the greater reptile community.

The theory behind ecological traps expands on source-sink theory in metapopulation biology, whereby the trap is a “low-quality” habitat that is attractive and preferred by individuals over other available “high-quality” habitat. The trap effect is that this “low-quality” habitat does not support reproduction or overall survival of individuals even though it is preferred, and therefore cannot sustain the population – it is an “attractive sink” to these populations (Battin, 2004).

For snakes, the trap habitat is the low-lying, hot open peat that exists in the peat-mined areas during dry-cycle years, as gravid females seek out hot, open areas for gestation sites. They usually do not move far from a chosen gestation site during the summer, putting themselves in a vulnerable state as they remain exposed/basking to achieve their ideal thermoregulatory requirements. When the females give birth in these low-lying areas, the neonates are left in a “low-quality” habitat to choose hibernation sites in the fall. Since neonates are naïve to the behaviour of their habitat, they will choose any nearby hole (i.e., small mammal burrow) for hibernation. Since these snake’s exhibit site fidelity to hibernacula, survivors will return to their initial hibernation site (or general area) in subsequent years. When the habitat moves back into a wet-cycle, the low-lying areas will flood over fall or winter, and effectively kill off any snakes hibernating there. This is the sink, or the ecological trap. The ecological trap is evident at NPCA 5 site where water levels are below ground in the fall during hibernation site selection, but they increase over winter and flood the surface during hibernation removing the life zone (Fig. 4).

For turtles, the trap habitat appears during dry-cycles. It is the dry, terrestrial habitat that is attractive to turtles during the hottest and driest months of the year. Some species of turtle exhibit aestivation behaviour during the hot summer months, often between late July and September. Aestivation is a state of dormancy that some ectotherms use to cope with environmental conditions that become unfavorable to remain active within (Ernst, 1982; Yagi and Litzgus, 2012). Turtles usually aestivate more often when their habitat cannot provide cool enough temperatures and have been found to do so more frequently during dry-cycles in Wainfleet Bog (Yagi and Litzgus, 2012). Ideal aestivation habitat are terrestrial areas with enough shade cover and leaf litter to protect against sun and heat exposure – in the Wainfleet bog, that includes areas with sphagnum hummocks, leaf litter under blueberry bushes, cotton grass hummocks, and leaf litter under forested areas (Yagi and Litzgus, 2012). Unfortunately, the trap effect transpires when wildfires occur during these hot summer months, which naturally target the dry, terrestrial habitats that turtles use for aestivation. To date 2 adult endangered turtle carcasses have been found in burn areas within the bog (M. Browning pers. Obsv.).

Additionally, since wintering sites are drier during dry cycles, this causes turtles to begin hibernation at a deeper burrow depth risking anoxic conditions if the water levels rise overwinter. Midwinter hibernation surveys indicate the highest oxygen content is near the ice surface about 20-30 cm depth and the least oxygen (< 2mg/l dissolved oxygen) is in deeper areas > 30cm (Yagi and Yagi, 2018). We have found evidence of overwinter mortality in three species of turtles following dry winter cycles. We found 3 dead adult endangered turtles and several more remains of Snapping turtles and Painted turtles in drains following winters of 2002, 2004, 2012, 2014, 2015. All years showed lower total precipitation records and low ground water levels. All of these species are adapted to aquatic hibernation under the ice with low oxygen conditions, but they do not survive prolonged anoxia (no oxygen) (Ultsch and Jackson, 1982; Ultsch, 1985 and 1989), which are the conditions found in the internal drains at depth (Yagi and Yagi, 2018).

Population dynamics of cryptic or rare species are difficult to assess using classic mark-recapture calculations, because several assumptions of the model are violated. There is no guarantee that survival rates are the same between years, especially when the habitat does not always support their survival, and there is no guarantee that catchability is equal among individuals. The nature of surveying for rare and cryptic species often results in low recapture rates, that classically over-estimate population size. A better way to determine the trajectory of a population is by using predictive models that require knowledge of mortality factors, sensitivity testing, estimates of fecundity and survivorship by age class. We have begun a population viability analysis for the Wainfleet Massasauga Population comparing managed (neonate dispersal control using assisted/forced hibernation) and unmanaged scenarios.

For turtles, understanding that adults are being eliminated from the population at an unnatural rate is cause for alarm without need for any calculations. Adults are of highest reproductive value in turtle populations (Crouse et al., 1987; Crowder et al, 1994), as the adults sustain the population by producing recruitment every year - and they are very long-lived animals (Litzgus et al., 1999). It is known that survival of turtles increases exponentially as they age, and that survival of hatchlings is always extremely low, but never zero. For snakes, especially Massasaugas, having a lack of recruitment over many years impacts the population greatly, as these snakes begin reproducing at age 3 or 4, and are estimated to live 9+ years (Yagi et al., 2018). A 3-to-4-year cycle in habitat quality may effectively wipe out an entire cohort of newly mature snakes and can cause a population crash in less than 10 years.

To ensure the protection and recovery of these species-at-risk, and the greater reptile community, the hydrological regime and frequent dry-to-wet cycles occurring within the Wainfleet Bog must be addressed. By removing the reverse seasonal fluctuations brought on by municipal drain maintenance (i.e., Biederman Drain), we can remove the impact to the habitat, give the landowners better control of the sites water-levels, and begin to move the entire wetland ecosystem on the right trajectory towards recovery.

The ecological trap can be addressed by stopping the trap from operating in the first place. There are several options that we have proposed to NPCA but have not been fully accepted to date.  The proposed mitigation methods reflect Provincial and National recovery strategy objectives for the Wainfleet Population (OMNR, 2015; Parks Canada, 2015).

Our proposed mitigation actions are as follows:

1. Stopping SAR snakes from gestating in the central mined peatland and initiating site fidelity behaviour, by bringing gravid females into the lab to give birth. Releasing post-partum females at point of capture following 1 week of imprinting and retaining neonates for assisted/forced hibernation across all identified life zone areas.

2. Enhancing refugia areas (higher elevation habitats within the bog feature) which are also areas that maintain a life zone, for gestation habitat function by keeping areas open using artificial gestation site cover objects and vegetation maintenance.

3. Preventing SAR neonates from dispersing into the Central Mined peatland and selecting burrows for hibernation by using “assisted/ forced” hibernation techniques. Place neonates into artificial burrows within known life zone areas to overwinter until spring.

4. Keeping flood prone areas flooded by maintaining beavers and their dams. Monitor water levels across ecosystem. We currently have 3 water level transducers sites.

5. Monitor life zone areas using winter monitoring methods, locate suitable areas for Life zone monitoring, and testing habitat suitability using gartersnakes prior to using sites for SAR neonates.

6. Use SAR neonates for headstarting in pre-determined life zone areas, identified from across the site to ensure genetic diversity is captured overtime.

7. Create new hibernation life zones for snakes in potentially suitable areas, by adding microtopography and woody material and creating conditions for sphagnum growth.

8. Add more dams into low lying areas or create more microtopography in the interior to create aquatic refugia for turtles.

9. Mitigate winter anoxia problem for turtles by adding ventilation pipes to drain banks where dead turtles have been found. Monitor aquatic habitats during mid-winter ice cover period.

10. Translocate SAR individuals from the population (maximum of 2 neonates per litter ) to the Toronto Zoo as part of the Species Survival Plan (SSP).

Without receiving NPCA permissions to implement our full mitigation methods (which are the approved provincial methods), we need to find a long-term solution to the drainage threat, or the SAR populations will continue to decline.

Engaging stakeholders is key to moving forward with any restoration work. To help facilitate communication between the scientists, practitioners and stakeholders, the  Society for Ecological Restoration  (SER) uses various tools, such as a  Recovery Wheel  to communicate scientific results to a general audience. Each part of the wheel represents a different aspect of the restoration project in question. Recovery level of each wheel section is assessed on a scale of 1 (minimal) to 5 (advanced), and is used to help determine the current state of the site in question. A more filled-in wheel represents a more complete or on-track restoration project. 

The two recovery wheels above were filled out by Mark Browning and Katharine Yagi, and reviewed by the delegation, in order to show the recovery state of the Wainfleet bog for (A) the experimental area where M. Browning set up the vegetation plots, and (B) the entire bog ecosystem, which incorporates all of NPCA, MECP and private lands. For wheel (A), because the immediate threat of drainage was experimentally addressed using peat dams in interior drain, we ranked the “absence of threats” section as a 1 out of 5 stars. The ranking was not higher than this because most of the original peat dams are no longer present, largely due to beaver activity. However, since the impact of drainage has not yet been addressed for the entire ecosystem, the “absence of threats” was ranked with 0 out of 5 stars for wheel (B), with a 1 out of 5 star subsection acknowledging that the peat mining activity has fully stopped within the site. Further details on the recovery wheel ranking criteria can be found in the Appendix.

We are proposing that the 1.4 section of Biederman drain that cut into the moat of Wainfleet Bog along the southern edge, be moved back to its 1930s route through the clay agricultural fields. This action will result in the abandonment of the existing section that cuts through the bog, giving space for beaver activity, and giving NPCA better control over the water levels within this site (see Figure of catchments from M. Browning). It is recommended that one control structure be installed at the east junction point, and structure height can be decided on that will suit all stakeholder goals, and ultimately determine the trajectory for the bog’s recovery.

This change will result in; 1) better control by NPCA of water levels within their lands, 2) Better protection and recovery of species-at-risk and their habitat, 3) better drainage of the adjacent agricultural fields, 4) removal of drainage feature from a nationally significant wetland and 5) improvement of Haudenosaunee traditional harvesting territory, and preservation of sacred species.

Post-monitoring of wells, vegetation plots, SAR population monitoring and overall reptile community monitoring will be required to determine the site response to this action. All research and data to date support this action.

This proposal addresses goal #1 of the Site Management Plan.

The alternate proposal, which was originally discussed with NPCA in a meeting in January 2021, shows the need for several dam structures along the Biederman drain to help block off the major drainage outlets but keeps the municipal channel open for ongoing farm drainage. However, beavers and turtles dig their own tunnels in the banks of watercourses, and beavers use the Biederman drain as a dispersal corridor to retreat to deeper water areas when the bog drains down following maintenance. Beavers will likely attempt to bypass the dams creating additional drain outlets and new dams in the main channel which is deeper and preferred habitat. The dam outlet structures would require constant monitoring and maintenance by NPCA. Therefore, while this plan was proposed first, there are caveats that would likely lead to increased maintenance costs to the NPCA, and is not a long-term, sustainable solution to maintain water levels within the bog.

This delegation of experts include Six Nations, Nature Conservancy of Canada, Wildlife Preservation Canada, Dr. Barry Warner (University of Waterloo), Dr. Glenn Tattersall and Dr Liette Vasseur (Brock University), Dr. Mark Browning (MNRF Wildlife Research), Dr. Katharine Yagi (8Trees Inc. and Brock University), Anne Yagi (8Trees Inc.), Cathy Blott (8Trees Inc.), and others. 

This is the delegations preferred option - Return Biederman drain to its historical 1930s route through the clay agricultural fields.

Timing: It is a logical time to re-examine drainage needs as part of the 40-yr cyclic Drainage Report. This will lead to immediate and more permanent restoration.

Costs: Most cost-effective option.

• The relocated drain will improve drainage of clay agricultural soils rather than the non-agricultural peat soils.
• There will be no future costs to NPCA for beaver dam removal in the abandoned section.
• There will be cost savings now and no ongoing costs to landowners.
• There will be minimal costs for monitoring and maintenance by NPCA - only a single control point.
• No costs for future regulatory oversight.
• Species-at-risk (SAR) funding will support capital costs. SARSP Application already sent in by 8Trees Inc.
• Significant reduction in greenhouse gas emission costs and increase in carbon credits.
• Potential for big bang results with comparatively minimal dollars.

Species at Risk: addresses recommendations by all SAR research on site.

• addresses urgent need of habitat restoration for reptile SAR now (rather than later), as populations are not viable in the long term without proper habitat function.
• strengthens chances for survival and possible population expansion for SAR.
• easy and straight forwards - there is great potential for this project to serve as a demonstration for other SAR sites, and restoration work in Ontario
• Bog water table becomes more stable and predictable for SAR.
• Will result in a 300 m buffer around Wainfleet bog.
• Higher water tables in bog decrease chances of further degradation and habitat disturbances (e.g., fires, alien plant invasions) and carbon emissions.
• Relevance, Due Diligence, and Public Image: demonstrates that policy and practice decisions are guided by science and expert advice.

• underscores NPCA's careful leadership and relevance, and exemplifies NPCA seriousness and regard for SAR.
• model of vision, forward-thinking and success of management for similar sites or projects in the future.
• exemplifies collaboration and positive outcome from multi-stakeholder process and goodwill with local landowners.
• improves/restores Haudenosaunee traditional harvesting territory, and preserves sacred species.
• improves year-round reliable drainage for the farmers because there will no longer be SAR restrictions to maintain this section of drain in the 1930s alignment.

Move Biederman drain through the road allowance (extension from Barrick Rd) to the south.

Timing: This option is similar to Option 1, but the route is not in the 1930s alignment through the agricultural fields. This option should be considered if the receiving landowner is no longer in favor of Option 1.

• This option may have delays to accommodate DFO and SAR permits, and new channel construction planning.

Costs: Most expensive option to build today, but otherwise similar to Option 1.

• additional SAR funding likely necessary.
• permissions must be sought from landowners of this road allowance - likely NPCA and the municipality.

Species at Risk: Similar desired affects to water table and restoration of SAR habitat and populations as Option 1.

• smaller buffer around the bog in this scenario.
• beaver activity may expand to this new drain due to the small buffer size.

Relevance, Due Diligence, and Public Image: same as Option 1.

Patch outlets to Biederman drain and consider relocation to 1930s route at a later date.

Timing: This option will likely result in delayed and complicated approval process for a half-measure action. Approval will require multiple requests.

Costs: there will be ongoing costs for all landowners.

• ongoing drainage problems in agricultural fields will lead to ongoing costs to farmers.
• costs for future beaver dam removal.
• peat soils in the bog will remain dry and fire-prone, leading to NPCA costs in wildfire management.
• no cost savings now.
• ongoing costs to NPCA for monitoring and maintenance of multiple control points along Biederman drain.
• costs for future regulatory oversight.
• costs to provincial government - SARSP funding to continually support capital costs of SAR mitigation work.
• no real reduction in greenhouse gas emission costs and opportunity for carbon credits/carbon trading.
• poor or limited results with more dollars; results unpredictable.

Species at Risk: this option will only be a short-term solution to SAR habitat restoration and will require continued SAR population recovery action.

• only partly addresses urgent need of habitat restoration for SAR now rather than later; bog habitat recovery delayed.
• chances for survival and possible population expansion for SAR remains unpredictable; ineffective or incomplete restoration of habitat.
• unpredictable; no real value of demonstration project for other SAR sites in Ontario.
• bog water table recovery is incomplete and unpredictable for SAR.
• partial water table increases in bog maintains chances of further degradation and habitat disturbances by fire, alien plant invasions, carbon emissions.

Relevance, Due Diligence, and Public Image: does not demonstrate that policy and practice decisions are guided by best science and expert advice.

• possibly puts NPCA in position to defend half measures and explain poor action if SAR disappear.
• poor or incomplete vision, forward-thinking and success of management for similar sites/projects in future.
• creates disagreements among collaborators and stakeholders; possible angry local landowners .
• does not or delays improvements/restoration of Haudenosaunee traditional harvesting territory; does not preserve sacred species.
• does not improve drainage for farmers, because farmers will have to wait for SAR timing windows for any dams to be removed.

No restoration/ leave as is.

Timing: easy and least complicated option but does not restore bog and habitats.

Costs: there will be ongoing costs to all landowners.

• existing ditches will continue to drain the bog rather than clay agricultural soils; ongoing and increasing costs to landowners.
• ongoing costs in future for beaver dam removal.
• no cost savings now and ongoing costs to landowners.
• ongoing and possibly increased costs for monitoring and maintenance; multiple sites.
• ongoing costs for future regulatory oversight.
• no further or reduced SAR funding to support capital costs.
• ongoing and increasing greenhouse gas emission costs and decrease in carbon credits/carbon trading opportunities.
• ongoing and increasing costs; more expensive than if action is taken immediately.

Species at Risk: This option does not address urgent need of habitat restoration for SAR, and supports further loss of bog habitat and possible extirpation of resident SAR.

• jeopardized SAR recovery and survival; no population expansion of SAR.
• good demonstration project for what results when no action is taken for other SAR sites in Ontario.
• bog water table is unpredictable, erratic, and likely lower; further jeopardizing SAR.
• current water tables in bog maintains high chance for further degradation and habitat disturbances by fire, alien plant invasions, excessive carbon emissions.

Relevance, Due Diligence, and Public Image: This option does not demonstrate policy and practice decisions guided by science and expert advice.

• demonstrates negligence.
• does not help NPCA reputation and relevance; exemplifies NPCA poor or incomplete regard for SAR.
• example of what happens when action is not taken to ensure proper and complete management for similar sites/projects in future.
• disintegration of partnerships and no goodwill with local landowners.
• no improvement to Haudenosaunee traditional harvesting territory; loss of sacred species.

Battin J. 2004. When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations. Conservation Biology. 1482-1491.vol 18 (6)

Baldwin, R. F., A. J. K. Calhoun, and P. G. deMaynadier. 2006. The significance of hydroperiod and stand maturity for pool-breeding amphibians in forested landscapes. 84:1604–1615.

Bay, R.R., 1968. The hydrology of several peat deposits in northern Minnesota, USA. In In: Proceedings of the third international peat congress. Quebec, Canada: National Research Council of Canada: 212-218.

Browning, Mark. 2015. The dynamics and mechanisms of community assembly in a mined Carolinian peatland. Doctoral dissertation Trent University.

COSEWIC. 2012. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiii + 84 pp. ( www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default_e.cfm ).

COSEWIC. 2014. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Spotted Turtle Clemmys guttata in

Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiv + 74 pp. ( www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default_e.cfm ).

Costanzo, J. P., and R. E. Lee Jr. 2013. Commentary: avoidance and tolerance of freezing in ectothermic vertebrates. The Journal of Experimental Biology 216:1961–1967.

Crouse, D.T., Crowder, L.B. and Caswell, H., 1987. A stage‐based population model for loggerhead sea turtles and implications for conservation. Ecology, 68(5), pp.1412-1423.

Crowder, L.B., Crouse, D.T., Heppell, S.S. and Martin, T.H., 1994. Predicting the impact of turtle excluder devices on loggerhead sea turtle populations. Ecological applications, 4(3), pp.437-445.

Crowe, A. S., S. G. Shikaze and J. E. Smith. 2000. Hydrogeological studies in support of the restoration of Wainfleet bog: numerical modelling. Unpublished report prepared for Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority.

Donaldson.C.1987. A Paleohistory of The Wainfleet Bog, Special Topic. Department Of Geography, Brock University, St Catharines On.

Environment Canada. 2019. Beavers: 5 ways beaver keep our ecosystem healthy.  https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/mb/riding/nature/animals/mammals/castors-beavers 

Ernst, C. H. 1982. Environmental temperatures and activities in wild spotted turtles, Clemmys guttata. Journal of Herpetology 16:112–120.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. Greenhouse gas emissions from atypical passenger vehicle: Questions and Answers fact sheet. Office of Transportation and Air Quality EPA-420-F-18-008 March 2018

Gregory, P. T. 1982. Reptilian Hibernation. Pp. 53–154. in C. Gans, and F.H. Pough (Eds.),Biology of the Reptilia. Academic Press, USA.

Harvey, D.S. and Weatherhead, P.J., 2006. Hibernation site selection by eastern massasauga rattlesnakes (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) near their northern range limit. Journal of Herpetology, 40(1), pp.66-73.

Hoag R.S., J.S. Price.1997. The effects of matrix diffusion on solute transport and retardation in undisturbed peat in laboratory columns J. Contam. Hydrol., 28 (1997), pp. 193-205

Howie, S.A., Whitfield, P.H., Hebda, R.J., Munson, T.G., Dakin, R.A. and Jeglum, J.K., 2009. Water table and vegetation response to ditch blocking: restoration of a raised bog in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 34(4), pp.381-392.

Huey, R. B. 1982. Temperature, Physiology, and the Ecology of Reptiles. Pp. 25–91 in C. Gans,and F. H. Pough (Eds.), Biology of the Reptilia. Academic Press, USA.

IPCC. Climate Change, 2013. The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

IUCN. 2017. Issues Brief. Peatlands and Climate Change. November 2017.  https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/peatlands_and_climate_change_issues_brief_final.pdf 

Litzgus, J.D., Costanzo, J.P., Brooks, R.J. and Lee, Jr, R.E., 1999. Phenology and ecology of hibernation in spotted turtles (Clemmys guttata) near the northern limit of their range. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 77(9), pp.1348-1357.

Macdonald, I.D. 1992. A Biological Inventory and Evaluation of The Wainfleet Bog ANSI. OMNR, Parks and Recreation Areas Section, Southern Region, Aurora., OFER 9205 vii + 154pp.

Nagy, B.R. 1992. Post Glacial Paleoecology And Historical Disturbance Of Wainfleet Bog, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, Ma Thesis, University Of Waterloo.

National Research Council. 1995. Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.  https://doi.org/10.17226/4766 .

Niagara Air Photo Digital Images, 1934 Series. [18932-039]. St. Catharines, ON: Brock University Maps, Data & GIS, 2016. Available: http://library.brocku.ca/MDG/1934/JPEG/18932-039.jpg (Accessed 14/06/2021).

Niagara Air Photo Digital Images, 1965 Series. [18932-039]. St. Catharines, ON: Brock University Maps, Data & GIS, 2016. Available: http://library.brocku.ca/MDG/1965/JPEG/18932-039.jpg (Accessed 14/06/2021).

Niagara Air Photo Digital Images, 2015 Series. [18932-039]. St. Catharines, ON: Brock University Maps, Data & GIS, 2016. Available: http://library.brocku.ca/MDG/2015/JPEG/18932-039.jpg (Accessed 14/06/2021).

NPCA. 1997. Wainfleet Bog Management Plan. Unpublished report for the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority. 30pp. + appendix 55pp.

Nugent, K.A., Strachan, I.B., Roulet, N.T., Strack, M., Frolking, S. and Helbig, M., 2019. Prompt active restoration of peatlands substantially reduces climate impact. Environmental Research Letters, 14(12), p.124030.

O'Brolchain. N., J. Peters, and F. Tanneberger. 2020. Peatlands in the EU common agriculture policy (CAP) after 2020. Position Paper - (Version 4.8)

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. 2016. Recovery Strategy for the Massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) – Carolinian and Great Lakes – St. Lawrence populations in Ontario. Ontario Recovery Strategy Series. Prepared by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario. v + 9 pp. + Appendix ix + 37 pp. Adoption of the Recovery Strategy for the Massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) in Canada (Parks Canada Agency 2015)

Parks Canada Agency. 2015. Recovery Strategy for the Massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) in Canada. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Parks Canada Agency. Ottawa. vii + 35pp.

Pengelley. J.W. 1990. Lake Erie Levels in The Northeastern Erie Basin And The Formation Of Ephemeral Lake Wainfleet In The Southern Niagara Peninsula During The Holocene Period, Brock University, Department Of Geography, St Catharines On.

P.M. Hayward, R.S. Clymo 1982, Profiles of water content and pore size in Sphagnum peat, and their relation to peat bog ecology Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B, 215 (1982), pp. 299-325

Prat-Guitart, N., Rein, G., Hadden, R.M., Belcher, C.M. and Yearsley, J.M., 2016. Effects of spatial heterogeneity in moisture content on the horizontal spread of peat fires. Science of The Total Environment, 572, pp.1422-1430.

Quinton W.L., T. Elliot, J.S. Price, F. Rezanezhad, R. Heck Measuring physical and hydraulic properties of peat from X-ray tomography Geoderma, 153 (2009), pp. 269-277

Rezanezhad, F., Price, J.S., Quinton, W.L., Lennartz, B., Milojevic, T. and Van Cappellen, P., 2016. Structure of peat soils and implications for water storage, flow and solute transport: A review update for geochemists. Chemical Geology, 429, pp.75-84.

Rezanezhad F., W.L. Quinton, J.S. Price, D. Elrick, T. Elliot, K.R. Shook Influence of pore size and geometry on peat unsaturated hydraulic conductivity computed from 3D computed tomography image analysis Hydrol. Process., 24 (2010), pp. 2983-2994

Smith, C.S., 2009. Hibernation of the eastern massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) in northern Michigan.

Tanneberger, F., Abel, S., Couwenberg, J., Dahms, T., Gaudig, G., Günther, A., Kreyling, J., Peters, J., Pongratz, J. and Joosten, H., 2021. Towards net zero CO2 in 2050: An emission reduction pathway for organic soils in Germany. Mires and Peat, 27.

Tinkler. K.J. 1994 Entre Lacs; A Postglacial Peninsula Physiography, In: Niagara Changing Landscapes, Ottawa On, Carleton Press

Ultsch, G. R., and D. C., Jackson. 1982. Long-term submergence at 3 C of the turtle, Chrysemys picta bellii, in normoxic and severely hypoxic water: I. Survival, gas exchange and acidbase status. Journal of Experimental Biology, 96(1), pp.11-28.

Ultsch, G.R. 1985. The Viability of neararctic freshwater turtles submerged in anoxia and normoxia at 3 and 10°C, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 81A:607–611.

Ultsch, G. R. 1989. Ecology and physiology of hibernation and overwintering among freshwater fishes, turtles, and snakes. Biological Reviews 64:435–516.

Wilcox, D.A., Sweat, M.J., Carlson, M.L. and Kowalski, K.P., 2006. A water-budget approach to restoring a sedge fen affected by diking and ditching. Journal of Hydrology, 320(3-4), pp.501-517.

Yagi A.R. and Frohlich K. 1998. An interim report on Wainfleet bog restoration: challenges and future direction, second inter global symposium for the conservation of eastern massasauga rattlesnakes, Toronto Zoo p. 164 to 169

Yagi A.R. and R. Tervo .2005. Wainfleet bog Massasauga population interim report prepared for the third massasauga conference- proceedings Toronto Zoo.

Yagi A.R., K.T. Yagi, C. Abney, C. Blott and T. Bukovics.2018. Managing an ecological trap in a partially mined peatland on the resident reptile community which includes five species at risk; Massasauga; Eastern Ribbon; Spotted turtle; Snapping turtle and Blanding’s turtle final report FY 2017-18 to the Ontario Species at Risk stewardship fund.

Yagi, A.R. And K.T. Yagi. 2018. Habitat use by two populations of species at risk, Massasauga and Spotted turtles, in a partially mined peatland ecosystem – though periods of dry and wet habitat cycles from 1999 to 2016. draft prepared for Canadian wildlife Services, Environment Canada. 20pp.

Yagi A.R., K.T. Yagi, B. Breton, C. Blott and T. Bukovics.2019. Managing an ecological trap in a partially mined peatland on the resident reptile community which includes five species at risk; massasauga; Eastern Ribbon; Spotted turtle; Snapping turtle and Blanding’s turtle final report FY 2018-19 to the Ontario Species at Risk stewardship fund.

Yagi, A.R., Abney, C., Bukovics, T., Breton, B.A., Blott, C., Garcia, B. and Yagi, K.T., 2018. The Young and the Restless: Postpartum Breeding and Early Onset Sexual Maturity in an Isolated Northern Population of Massasauga Rattlesnakes. Journal of Zoology, 89(1), pp.60-68.

Yagi, A., 2020. Flood Survival Strategies of Overwintering Snakes (Master’s thesis, Brock University).

Yagi A.R., K.T. Yagi, B. Breton, C. Blott and T. Bukovics.2020. Managing an ecological trap in a partially mined peatland on the resident reptile community which includes five species at risk; Massasauga; Eastern Ribbon; Spotted turtle; Snapping turtle and Blanding’s turtle final report fy 2019-20 to the Ontario Species at Risk stewardship fund.

Yagi, A.R., Planck, R.J., K.T. Yagi, and G.J. Tattersall. 2020. A long-term study on Massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus) inhabiting a partially mined peatland: A standardized method to characterize snake overwintering habitat. Journal of Herpetology, 54(2), pp.235-244.

Yagi K.T. and J. Litzgus. 2012. The effects of flooding on the spatial ecology of spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) in a partially mined peatland. Copeia (2) 179-190.

Yagi K.T. And J. Litzgus.2013. Thermoregulation of Spotted turtles (Clemmys guttata) in a beaver-flooded bog in southern Ontario, Canada. J of Therm biol. (38) 205-213.