Wetlands, Waterbirds, and Water

A visual journey through a century of change

created by Jami Dennis - Updated January 2024

Here we were standing on the high head-land looking out over the land of our quest. Here spread at our feet was a domain for wild fowl unsurpassed in the United States. - William Finley, 1905

Centuries ago the Klamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin tribes lived along the lakes, rivers, and rich wetlands of the Upper Klamath Basin. They lived off what the land provided.

The Williamson, Sprague, and Lost Rivers brought tens of thousands of C'waam and Koptu (Lost River and shortnose sucker fish) to Upper Klamath Lake. Millions of waterbirds filled the sky, lakes, and wetlands. Deer, antelope, and jackrabbits roamed the land. Thick patches of tules and wokas filled the marshes.

It was a land of plenty for hunting, fishing, and gathering. Water was abundant. Life was good.

Heart and Soul

Klamath is, and always has been, rich in birds, and by all counts is the heart and soul of the Pacific Flyway. - Mark Stern

The Klamath Basin sits at the heart of the Pacific Flyway.

Located along the Oregon-California border, the Upper Klamath Basin is known for its rivers, lakes, and wetlands where, for centuries, waterbirds have used as a stopover on their long migrations.

The country as far as the eye can reach is one continued swamp and lakes. - Peter Skene Ogden, 1826

In the late 1800s and early 1900s the U.S. government was eager to settle western lands. Underneath the 350,000 acres of wetlands, shallow lakes and marshes in the Klamath Basin was rich, fertile soil. It was a goldmine for farming and ranching, but something would need to be done about all that water.

Surveyors were sent to map the great swamplands out west. They found a vast network of rivers, lakes, and wetland areas across the Upper Klamath Basin.

By this time stories had already been circulating across the U.S. about this land where millions of birds filled the skies – gulls, terns, ducks, geese, grebes, herons, and egrets. Hunters, explorers, and even a few biologists with cameras were drawn to the Upper Klamath Basin.

In 1905, biologist and conservationist, William Finley, and his long time friend, Herman Bohlman, armed with cameras and curiosity, headed to the Upper Klamath Basin in search of White Herons* to photograph.

^*The "White Herons" they searched for are known as the Great Egret, Ardea alba.

Exploring by boat in Tule Lake, Finley and Bohlman searched through the "great tule swamps" on the northern end of the lake but they came up empty. The plume hunters had gotten there first.

On the southern end of the lake they rowed around Bloody Point in search of the elusive white waterbird. They spent a month and half scouring the lake and surrounding wetlands where they found colonies of Western Grebe, White Pelicans, Caspian Terns, and Ring-Billed Gulls. But four years would pass before they saw their first Great Egret in the Klamath Basin.

William Finley and Herman Bohlman rowing around Bloody Point on Tule Lake in 1905

The air gleamed white as the rays of the western sun caught the wings of the flying multitude. - William Finley

01 / 05

The lure of millions of birds for their plumage brought hunters, eager to earn their fortunes, to the Upper Klamath Basin. With no regulations to hold them back, birds were killed by the tens of thousands.

Feeding this hunting frenzy was the huge market for feathers as fashion. And not just a single feather stuck in a hat's brim. Flamboyant hats adorned with taxidermy birds amidst a pile a feathers were all the rage.

If the American woman could once follow in the trail of the plume hunter, she could find little pleasure in the use of our wild bird plumage. - William Finley, 1910

Finley, having seen the uncontrolled slaughter of waterbirds in the Upper Klamath Basin, was an outspoken critic of the millinery trade's use of plumage. To build awareness, he often gave lectures where he shared images of the many birds he had photographed in the Upper Klamath Basin.

William L. Finley...caused at least 50 women to gaze guiltily at the plumes which they wore in their hats; shed a few tears as the horrors of the lives of the hunted birds were displayed to them....

(Detroit Free Press, December 1908)

An estimated 5 million birds a year were being slaughtered in the name of fashion. At this rate there would soon be no birds left. Finley's lectures and articles helped to spur on the conservation movement.

Many women were convinced. They formed local chapters of Audubon Societies and began to boycott the "plume hat" fad, pledging not to wear birds or bird plumage of any kind.

But hunting wasn't the only threat that waterbirds faced. Their extensive wetland habitat would soon experience dramatic changes.

Man has the peculiar habit of building something with his hands and, at the same time, kicking it to pieces with his feet. - William Finley,1935

Transformation

A few decades before Finley and Bohlman set out to explore the land of their quest, back east in Washington, D.C. government officials were already busy making plans to expand western settlement. A series of regulations were enacted that would lay the groundwork for transforming this rich, wet landscape.

1850

Swamp and Overflow Lands Act - turned "swamp lands" over to the states to drain and convert to agriculture

1902

National Reclamation Act - funded irrigation projects in the western U.S. which included 70,000 acres in the Klamath Basin

1905

Klamath Project Authorized - with funding from the National Reclamation Act, the goal of the project was to drain Lower Klamath Lake and Tule Lake for agricultural use, store river waters from the Klamath and Lost Rivers, and control flooding of the reclaimed lakebed lands.

Constructing the Klamath Project

Explore the construction of the Klamath Project's main features.

The A Canal

Construction of the Klamath Project began with construction of the A Canal in 1906. The A canal is the main branch of the Klamath Project system.

Clear Lake Dam and Reservoir

Drainage of Tule Lake began in 1910 with the completion of Clear Lake Dam and Reservoir on the Lost River.

Lost River Diversion Dam

The Lost River Diversion Dam, along with many of the distribution canals, was completed in 1912 and also helped with the draining of Tule Lake. Water releases from Clear Lake traveled downstream to the Lost River Diversion Dam which diverted the water into the D and G Canals.

Link River Dam

Completed in 1921, the Link River Dam was constructed by the California-Oregon Power Company (now Pacific Power, a subsidiary of PacifiCorp). Authorized by the U.S. Government, Pacific Power constructed the dam for hydroelectric power use and gave preferential power rates to Klamath Project water users. These rates expired in 2006 and were not renewed.

Anderson Rose Diversion Dam

When it was initially built in 1921, the Anderson-Rose Diversion Dam was known as the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam. Located Southeast of Merrill, Oregon, the dam diverts water into the J Canal to the lands reclaimed from the bed of Tule Lake.

Malone Diversion Dam

Built to divert water from the Lost River into Langell Valley, the Malone Diversion Dam was built in 1923.

Gerber Dam

The Gerber Dam and Reservoir on Miller Creek was completed in 1925. The dam and reservoir provide storage for irrigation and help to reduce water flow into Tule Lake and the Tule Lake Sumps.

Tule Lake Tunnel

The Tule Lake diversion tunnel was built under Sheepy Ridge in 1940. It drains the water from Tule Lake into Lower Klamath Lake.

Draining Tule Lake

Pumps were built to lift water from Tule lake and into the tunnel, draining the lake into Lower Klamath Lake.

Constructing the Klamath Project

_{Explore the construction of the Klamath Project's main features.}

Upstream face of intake gates of Main Klamath Canal and gate house, 1907.

The A Canal

Construction of the Klamath Project began with construction of the A Canal in 1906. The A canal is the main branch of the Klamath Project system.

Clear Lake Dam Gate Tower construction, 1909

Clear Lake Dam and Reservoir

Drainage of Tule Lake began in 1910 with the completion of Clear Lake Dam and Reservoir on the Lost River.

Today they continue to provide irrigation storage and reduce flows into the reclaimed portion of Tule Lake and the Tule Lake Sumps in the Tulelake National Wildlife Refuge.

Lost River Diversion Dam

As the lake drained and land became available for reclamation it was leased to farmers and ranchers before opening it up to homesteading.

Link River Dam

Anderson Rose Diversion Dam

Malone Diversion Dam

Built to divert water from the Lost River into Langell Valley, the Malone Diversion Dam was built in 1923.

Gerber Dam

The Gerber Dam and Reservoir on Miller Creek was completed in 1925. The dam and reservoir provide storage for irrigation and help to reduce water flow into Tule Lake and the Tule Lake Sumps.

Tule Lake Tunnel

The Tule Lake diversion tunnel was built under Sheepy Ridge in 1940. It drains the water from Tule Lake into Lower Klamath Lake.

Draining Tule Lake

Pumps were built to lift water from Tule lake and into the tunnel, draining the lake into Lower Klamath Lake.

The Klamath Project transformed the Upper Klamath Basin from a waterbird wonderland to an agricultural wonder.

Tule Lake area, USGS map, 1892 — *(drag the slider right and left to see the changed landscape from 1892 to 2021)*

2021 aerial imagery of Tule Lake area — *(drag the slider right and left to see the changed landscape from 1892 to 2021)*

Refuge

Years ago a little fire was started by some enthusiasts who discovered that in the careless march of civilization and the rapid settlement of our country some species of birds and animals in our country had been exterminated, and many others were being driven toward the brink of destruction. - William Finley,1930

In the early 1900s, as work on the Klamath Project was just getting underway, Finley was busy making his case for conserving critical waterbird habitat in the Upper Klamath Basin. The photographs that he and Bohlman took on their many trips to the Upper Klamath Basin were instrumental in building awareness for the protection of waterbirds.

Motivated to act, he sent a letter along with some of his and Bohlman's hand-colored photographs to President Roosevelt, urging the President to protect critical bird habit areas.

William L. Finley and Herman Bohlman hand-painted photographs, 1905-1910

And it worked. Finley's powerful photographs and passionate writing were instrumental in encouraging President Theodore Roosevelt to establish several bird refuges. In 1908 President Roosevelt established the Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge as the first waterfowl refuge in the nation.

Tule Lake and Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuges would later be established by President Calvin Coolidge in 1928.

Photo of President Roosevelt signing bills; Library of Congress by Underwood & Underwood, 1903

While the establishment of National Wildlife Refuges was instrumental in protecting critical waterbird habit, it was the passing of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) in 1918 that put an end to the wholesale slaughter of waterbirds.

Initially between the U.S. and Canada, the MBTA prohibits the killing, capturing, selling, trading, and transport of protected migratory bird species. Since then, treaties implemented by the MBTA have been expanded to include Mexico (1936), Japan (1972), and Russia (1976).

Troubled Waters

With National Wildlife Refuges established in the Upper Klamath Basin, along with the signing and implementation of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, waterbirds began to make a comeback. But they would need to adapt to changes brought about by the construction of the Klamath Project.

With the Klamath Project in full swing, there were newly reclaimed lands ready for settlement. Between 1922 and 1937, as a reward for soldiers who served in WWI, homestead lotteries were established for veterans to move out west, farm the land, and establish their family roots. WWII veterans also participated in the homestead lotteries from 1946 to 1949.

The gift of land with the promise for plenty of irrigation water helped to populate the Upper Klamath Basin and stimulate the regional economy.

_{(These photos show eager veterans and their families at a homestead drawing in 1949, downtown Tule Lake welcoming the Homesteaders, a view of the Tule Lake homestead area, and Dale Sprout and his family viewing their new homestead)}

Throughout the 1950s waterbird populations seemed to flourish. Tule Lake and Lower Klamath refuges counted record numbers of waterfowl that came close 6 million.

Note: While these numbers are only for waterfowl on the refuges, they are a key indicator of the amount of waterbirds in the Upper Klamath Basin.

But the draining of Tule Lake and increased use of pesticides devastated waterbirds. Low water levels and the use of pesticides in irrigated agriculture degraded the water quality, leaving waterbirds susceptible to disease such as avian cholera and botulism.

Unless something could be done to protect their habitat, waterbirds would continue to struggle in the Upper Klamath Basin.

By the 1960s construction of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project was complete. With the influx of homesteaders, the area flourished with agriculture and ranching.

Meanwhile, with waterbird numbers dropping dramatically, conservationists were once again making their case to protect waterbirds.

The Executive Orders that created the National Wildlife Refuges protected wildlife on Lower Klamath Lake and Tule Lake. However, at the time of their signing in 1908 and 1928, the lakes were already part of the Klamath Project and targeted for homesteading. Conflicting interests gripped the area.

Conservationists were not happy to be losing more waterbird habit. Homesteaders were anxious to start farming the land. And, two competing federal agencies, the Reclamation Service (now the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation) and Biological Survey (now the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service) continually disagreed over who managed the land and how it was managed.

In response to this friction, the Kuchel Act (Public Law 88-567) was passed in 1964.

The Kuchel act recognized the importance of the National Wildlife Refuges (NWR) for migratory waterbirds and put a halt to any more homesteading on the refuges, preserving the existing habitat and giving a small win to conservationists.

And the conflict between federal agencies was resolved. The Bureau of Reclamation was tasked with managing the agricultural land-lease program on the refuge while the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) would manage the refuges.

The Kuchel act was seen as a step toward better wetlands management and protection for waterbirds.

But the act also ensured that the twenty-one thousand acres of leased land in the refuges would continue to be leased for agriculture.

Allowing farming to continue in the refuges has its challenges. Farming in waterbird habitat not only consumes water needed for healthy wetlands, it can also degrade the water quality.

With the passage of the Kuchel Act, the land-lease program on the refuges required refuge farming to balance the needs of agriculture with the needs of wildlife habitat.

At the time the Kuchel Act was passed, waterfowl populations were slowly beginning to rebound.

But more troubled waters were ahead.

As rivers were dammed and lakes drained, habitat loss had detrimental effects on other water-dependent species as well as waterbirds.

In 1988 the Lost River sucker and short-nose sucker (C'waam and Koptu), which are sacred and provide valuable sustenance to the Klamath Tribes, were listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA).

Now, in addition to balancing the water needs of agriculture and waterbirds, water managers had to find a way to protect and restore aquatic habitat for the endangered sucker fish. Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act mandates that protection of the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker be given the highest priority, putting agriculture and waterbirds in second and third place for water.

Dry Land

We are participating in a disaster, an eco-catastrophe -- devastation of the interwoven system of life on our planet. - William Kittredge, "Balancing Water"

The Upper Klamath Basin has survived through cyclical periods of drought throughout history. The ancient people and waterbirds learned to adapt and the wetlands recovered naturally. But the damming of rivers and draining of lakes has complicated the natural order of things.

chart showing wet/dry conditions for the Upper Klamath Basin through November 2023

Struggling to protect and recover fish, providing irrigation water to farmers, and supplying refuges with enough water to support migratory waterbirds is further complicated by an uncontrollable drought. While most recent data show signs of hope for the Upper Klamath Basin, from 2000 to late 2023 the Basin experienced continued drought conditions.

Drought conditions in Klamath, Siskiyou, and Modoc counties through December 26, 2023. Source: U.S. Drought Monitor

When it comes to water allocations, the National Wildlife Refuges are at the bottom of the list. During the drought the USFWS worked to improve conditions for waterbirds, but other issues impacted their work.

01 / 06

In 2006, a 1956 contract that provided low-cost power to Klamath Project irrigators expired. This resulted in the USFWS being unable to pump enough water from Tule Lake NWR into Lower Klamath NWR to meet the needs for the wetlands.

In 2013 the Klamath Basin Adjudication Final Order of Determination was issued. The order ruled that even though Lower Klamath NWR had senior water rights they could not be used for wetland management because Klamath Project water is intended for agriculture.

In 2017 the refuges got a small win. The Oregon Water Resources Department approved the temporary transfer of water rights within the USFWS. The USFWS was then able to allocate their water rights from Upper Klamath NWR to Lower Klamath NWR, providing much needed water to the Lower Klamath waterbird wetland habitat.

The waterfowl population began to rebound, but the ongoing drought has caused a continual loss of habitat resulting in fewer migratory waterbirds stopping in the Upper Klamath Basin. In 2021 the refuges recorded their lowest number of fall waterfowl ever. Due to the ongoing poor conditions, the refuges were dry for 2022 and 2023, resulting in no waterfowl being counted on the refuges.

As of December 2023, drought conditions have improved although the area remains abnormally dry.

The future for the Upper Klamath Basin is hopeful. The National Weather Service's Seasonal Drought Outlook predicts no drought conditions through March 2024.

The ongoing drought adds additional challenges for the many stakeholders in the Upper Klamath Basin. With limited water, endangered fish populations, farms, ranches, and waterbirds all struggle to survive.

But there is hope...

Restoration

In 2005 a large and diverse group of Klamath Basin stakeholders came together to develop the Klamath Basin Restoration Agreement (KBRA). In 2010 the final agreement was signed by all parties, including the Chairman of the Klamath Tribes and the Governors of California and Oregon. Unfortunately, congress failed to pass legislation that would implement the KBRA prior to the 2016 deadline. However, the development of the agreement itself proved that social and ecological restoration can happen when people come together on common ground.

Former foes became active partners, and their incredible collaboration has produced better outcomes for each stakeholder than they could achieve under the status quo. - Senator Jeff Merkley, 2010

Conservation and restoration of wetlands are vitally important to waterbirds and the services they provide. As more and more wetland habitat is destroyed by landscape and climate changes, wildlife refuges begin to reach the limits of what they can do. In the Upper Klamath Basin several public-private partnership programs have been initiated to offer help.

Leased lands in the Klamath refuges are used for agriculture, drainage, and flood control. As mentioned previously, under the Kuchel Act, and further clarified in the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997, the Leased Land Program allows commercial farming on the refuge using "proven conservation practices with benefits for wildlife."

This program is administered by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. And, while it must comply with conservation rules, it provides economic value to the area.

The Cooperative Farming Program is a program, separate from the Leased Lands Program, that allows farmers to grow crops in select areas on the refuges for no charge. In exchange, farmers leave a portion of their crop for waterbirds. This program, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, is specifically designed to provide food for waterbirds during their migratory stopover in the Klamath Basin.

The Walking Wetlands, another USFWS program, provides croplands within the refuge to farmers in exchange for the farmers turning their private, off refuge, cropland into wetlands on a one to four year cycle.

Unfortunately, due to the ongoing drought, there have not been any Walking Wetlands crops on the refuges for the last few years.

The Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program is a public-private partnership program that provides private landowners with financial and technical assistance for habitat restoration on their land.

There are several of these projects throughout the Upper Klamath Basin, like the one pictured here. This is a riparian and wetland restoration project at Agency Ranch, owned by long time rancher, Curt Thomas.

_{learn more about the Partners Program}

Lakeside Farms is an example of a recent Partners for Fish and Wildlife Project. This project was designed to provide habitat for migratory birds and other wildlife, aid in the recovery of endangered suckerfish, and improve water quality in Upper Klamath Lake in addition to maintaining an economically viable and productive farm.

Even though construction was just recently completed, Karl Wenner, one of the Lakeside Farms owners, reported that he has already seen several thousand migratory birds in the newly created habitat area.

The Yainix Ranch Oxbow Reconnection Project is a major project started in 2018 and covering over 340 acres. The main goal of this project is to reconnect the river and the floodplain. This involves excavation of the historic oxbow to create a seasonal wetland along with two fish ponds to ensure water for the fish.

This project has brought together a variety of partners - including Yainix Ranch landowners, USFWS, Ducks Unlimited, Intermountain West Joint Venture, and the Klamath Tribes. Once complete, it is expected that this will be a showcase project on what can be done through collaboration.

In May of 2021 the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) awarded $3.8 million to the Klamath Basin Farming and Wetland Collaborative project that will implement conservation projects in the Klamath Basin, providing habitat for migratory waterbirds, fish, and other wildlife on working agricultural land.

Collaboration partners for this NRCS project include Ducks Unlimited, Intermountain West Joint Venture, and USFWS.

_{Learn more about the NRCS Collaborative Project}

The Klamath Basin is an area rich in natural resources where cultures have collided over the use of these abundant resources, often to detriment of the land and its inhabitants. Steeped in history, the Basin will never be what it once was but there are proven ways to build a healthy, functional landscape where humans can coexist with wildlife.

Through conservation efforts, waterbirds recovered from overhunting and the loss of habitat from landscape development. But habitat loss remains an issue. And, waterbird counts that once were in the millions, now struggle to reach half that.

Billions of birds have already been lost and we can lose billions more within our lifetime if we don't come together and act.

Action

If you are motivated to act, do it. You can make a difference through your actions and your words. Support organizations that are doing work in the Upper Klamath Basin - either through volunteering, donating, or just helping spread the word.

Make your voice heard! Write to your elected officials and ask them to support funding for the Klamath National Wildlife Refuges and programs such as the USFWS Partners for Fish and Wildlife, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and others that support restoration and conservation efforts in the Upper Klamath Basin. If they already support these programs, write to them and thank them for it. Let them know their support matters.

Not sure who your representatives are? Use this free online tool from Common Cause.

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