The Elwha River and Elwha Dam Removal

The Elwha River is located in western Washington. It runs through the Olympic National Park before emptying into the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Historically, the river could only be described as a pinnacle of the natural world. However, that changed during the early 1900s.

In 1910, construction started on a dam about 5 miles upstream from the river mouth. Three years later, in 1913, the dam was finished (Olympic National Park, 2019). Another dam would later be built in 1927, about eight miles upstream of the Elwha Dam, called the Glines Dam, but the Elwha will be the main focus of this analysis. The dam would pose a significant problem to one of the most important natural resources in the Pacific Northwest - salmon. The dam blocked salmon from traveling further upriver, meaning that they could only use the first five miles for their spawning habitats. Eventually, the dam would cause a significant decline in the river's salmon populations, as well as the overall health of the ecosystem.

In this analysis, I will attempt to go through the natural and human history of the river spanning thousands of years, from pre-colonization of the Americas to westward expansion, all the way up to the present day. I will also dive into the multiple perspectives of different stakeholders on the natural resources of the river, with salmon as a focal point, as well as the dam and dam removal. This socio-cultural analysis will provide important information and recommendations to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission on how to navigate the dam removal process.

The Elwha River has always been linked to salmon. In fact, the Elwha was originally one of the only rivers in the U.S. that housed all of the salmonids native to the Pacific Northwest (Wunderlich et al., 1994). Salmon has always been a part of the identity of those living in the Pacific Northwest, especially the native tribes. For hundreds of years, native tribes have used salmon as a food source and have viewed it as a central part of their culture. The tribe that calls the lands along the Elwha River home is the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe. Like many Pacific Northwest tribes, fishing was an important part of their culture. They depended on not just salmon, but many of the natural resources that the river provided. However, in his book Finding the River: An Environmental History of the Elwha, author Jeff Crane writes, “For the Klallam, salmon were their most important resource and they actively pursued and harvested the plentiful fish” (2011, p. 23). Eventually in 1855, many colonizers had expanded westward. They forced their way onto land that did not belong to them, and the population of the Lower Elwha Klallam tribe reached less than 70 people. Thus, the Klallam Indians, as well as other tribes throughout the Olympic Peninsula signed the Point No Point Treaty, giving their land away (Crane, 2011). This would mark the start of the decline of the environment around the Elwha River.

The town of Port Angeles was soon born in the area around the river. Their economy was mainly supported by a growing logging and timber industry, and of course, salmon. Throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s, a businessman named Thomas Aldwell secretly bought plots of land around the river. Eventually, he created the Olympic Power & Development Company and later built the Elwha Dam to provide power to Port Angeles. The construction of the Elwha Dam was cheap and poor quality. They cut corners, including not building fish passages (which is illegal) and not securing the dam to bedrock (Lichatowich, 1999). By not securing the dam to the bedrock, it eventually broke open, causing the entire reservoir to be released. The valley flooded, and while nobody from the Lower Elwha Klallam tribe that lived along the river was injured, much of the land and the resources that they used was destroyed (Crane, 2011). Over the years following the completion of the dam, salmon populations dwindled because of overfishing as well as the impact of the dam. The dam “blocked the migration of salmon upstream, disrupted the flow of sediment downstream, and flooded the historic homelands and cultural sites of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe” (Olympic National Park, 2023). Additionally, one study found that the dam reduced salmon habitat by 90% and caused a 90% reduction in salmonid population size in the river (Pess et al., 2008).

Years went by, and throughout the late 1980’s the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe joined forces with multiple environmental groups in order to gain public support in the removal of the dams. Eventually their efforts were successful. In 1992 Congress was finally convinced to do something about the dam's impact on the river and ecosystem. Congress passed legislation calling for the removal of both the Elwha and Glines dams (Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act, 1992). This act was a major landmark, as it was the first ever piece of legislation that involved the removal of dams for restoration of a river and its ecosystem (Crane, 2011). However, even though the act was passed in 1992, it took many years to begin the removal. Originally, the plan was to begin the removal in 2008, once the engineering designs and water quality control and mitigation were completed. However, this went on longer than expected. The removal was pushed back to September of 2011, and it was completed in March 2012.

As of today, the river seems to be making progress towards the goal of revitalizing the ecosystem. Many studies have shown that the river has shown improvement since the removal of the dams. A study performed by Duda et al. (2021) showed that in 2019, the numbers of adult Chinook salmon observed were over 6x higher than in 2008. There have also been sightings of beavers in the river for the first time in over a century (Olympic National Park, 2023). Additionally, the dam had blocked the flow of nutrients and soil downstream for almost 100 years, and over time it accumulated. The removal of the dam allowed this massive build-up to finally be released downstream and reach places that it had not been able to for nearly a century, restoring the lost delta where the Elwha River and the Strait of Juan De Fuca meet. The ability for downstream movement of nutrients also has major implications for riparian vegetation, as these nutrients can help aid in revegetation. Other studies have shown that the removal of the dams has increased vegetation diversity in the riparian zone downstream, which could help restore more of the ecosystem to the way it once was (Brown et al., 2022).

There is not a tribal member that does not have a close tie with the Elwha River…I mean it is the most important thing to us and it was an embarrassment having two hydroelectric dams in the river and watching the salmon run slowly disappeared

Native American tribes have been a focal part of many of the events surrounding the Elwha River, and as such, are arguably the most important stakeholders in this topic. As author Jeff Crane wrote in Finding the River, “The story of the Elwha River begins with the Klallam people. They provide the common thread that weaves human history to the physical environment” (2011, pp. 16-17). The Klallam people have watched many of the resources of the river that they had used for hundreds of years, be taken from them, and used indiscriminately and irresponsibly. Salmon especially, which are very important culturally, had disappeared from most parts of the Elwha River. However, the Klallam people are not the only native tribes that have a stake in the events surrounding the Elwha River - dozens of other tribes across Pacific Northwest do as well.

In the grand scheme of things, many of the events that occurred to the Elwha River and to the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe have also occurred to other tribes - their land was taken from them, and the resources that they have always valued and protected were ravaged and misused. Dams were constructed on rivers that many tribes live on, and in some cases such as the Lower Elwha Klallam, the dams and infrastructure damaged or even wiped-out different homes and villages. Salmon populations sharply declined, and many runs and species were wiped out completely. It does not take much to see why these tribes would be in support of dam removal, as the Lower Elwha Klallam were.

The resulting removal of the Elwha and Glines dams, however, is not only important for the river. It is a landmark event that could help turn the tides of many tribal disputes regarding dams and infrastructure on rivers. And within the past couple of years, we have seen this to be true. Currently underway is the largest dam removal project in history, a title previously held by the removal of the Elwha and Glines dams. On the Klamath River, four total hydroelectric dams will be removed, with one already having been removed over the Summer of 2023 (Grable, 2023). The fight for the removal of these dams was spearheaded by multiple tribes who have historically inhabited the lands around the river, including the Yurok, Karuk, and Klamath Tribes. The removal of these dams will free up large amounts of stagnant water, and restore the Klamath salmon runs, and the ecosystem that many tribes value so much.

It is easy to see why Native Americans are such important stakeholders in the Elwha River. When the river flourishes, they do too. After a long history of being abused when it comes to topics of power and land tenure, many of their voices are finally being heard. Many of them are finally being recognized after years of being silenced and ignored. Hopefully they, as stewards of the environment, will continue to be included in discussions surrounding issues of dam removal, and other environmental topics. It is in the best interest of the entire nation that they are.

In 1938, Olympic National Park was established, and ever since then, the National Park Service has been a stakeholder in this story.

The National Park Service preserves unimpaired the natural and cultural resources and values of the National Park System for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations. The National Park Service cooperates with partners to extend the benefits of natural and cultural resource conservation and outdoor recreation throughout this country and the world

The role of the National Park Service is to protect the natural resources of the environment, in areas designated as national parks. They are also incentivized to keep their parks in the best condition, as doing so attracts tourism, generating revenue that can be put back into the parks. Thus, when there is an issue of resources within the boundaries of a national park being negatively affected, there is a reason for the NPS to want to help. Such was the case with the Elwha. However, even if it is in the best interests of the NPS to act, as it was with the Elwha, they are not always able to:

Well the Parks cannot take a position like that... we do not get involved until the Congress tells us. So, we cannot advocate one way or another about something like dam removal... it was not the job of the Park to take a position until Congress mandated it

As a result of this, the Park Service had to rely on the members of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe to fight the battle. An alliance and partnership was formed between these two groups through their common goals of preservation and conservation of the natural world. The tribe lobbied and fought for the removal of the dam. Once they had achieved their goal with the passage of the Elwha Act, the NPS was designated as the lead implementing agency for the removal project. Ever since then, the Park Service and the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe have worked together to help restore the Elwha ecosystem. The two have put in place agreements that allow the Tribe to use federal funds for restoration activities, and together they are working to monitor the recovery of the Elwha ecosystem (Sweetser, 2019).

Ultimately, the National Park Service has many reasons to be involved with the conservation of the Elwha River ecosystem, and through their relationships with the Lower Elwha Klallam tribe, they have been able to successfully implement and oversee many projects that will help replenish much of what was once damaged in Olympic National Park.

Though they were not as prevalent in the history of the Elwha as the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe and the National Park Service were, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) also holds a place at the table when it comes to discussions about the Elwha.

The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife is dedicated to preserving, protecting, and perpetuating the state's fish, wildlife, and ecosystems while providing sustainable fish and wildlife recreational and commercial opportunities

The WDFW has only truly become a major player in the last 15-20 years, after the Elwha Act was passed. However, since then, they have been integral in helping to restore the salmon populations, as well as other parts of the ecosystem along the Elwha River. The WDFW operates their own hatchery on the lower portion of the Elwha River, with the goal of helping to re-establish the once abundant runs of salmon. They also collaborate with members of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, as well as the NPS, in researching the success of the efforts being made by both parties to restore the ecosystem (WDFW, n.d. -b)

In addition to conducting research, the WDFW has helped set and enforce fishing regulations on the Elwha. Since the beginning of the dam removal in 2011, there has been a complete ban on harvesting fish in the river to help with the reintroduction and colonization of salmon populations (WDFW, 2023). The ban, however, allows for limited harvesting of salmon by the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, as a means of allowing them to continue historical cultural traditions.

Even though the general consensus among the previous stakeholder groups is that the dam removal and subsequent events are mostly positive, many citizens of the town of Port Angeles have differing opinions on it. Let's first start by looking at the direct benefits for these citizens.

The idea of salmon returning in abundance to the river is something that could benefit many residents. Eventually, when populations are large enough and the fishing ban has been removed, both recreational fishing and harvesting of the salmon will provide activities and jobs. This will ultimately help stimulate the economy of Port Angeles. Additionally, the dam removal freed up a century's worth of sediment buildup. The release of this sediment has consequently rebuilt a beach at the mouth of the river, which provides another recreational benefit for the residents of Port Angeles (Sweetser, 2019). However, even though there are multiple benefits from the dam removal project, the sentiments of the residents surrounding the topic have historically been negative.

There were numerous reasons why citizens originally opposed the removal of the dams. Some of the more common ones were: (a) The removal of the dams would create ugly and foul-smelling mudflats, which would drive down property values, (b) poor water quality would result from the sudden release of sediment buildup, and (c) the lakes created by the dams had their own ecosystems that would be affected by the removals (Crane, 2011).

Another reason for opposition to dam removal was that some citizens felt that the government was intruding into and interfering with their lives. This sentiment was and still is very commonly shared among conservative Republicans. At the time, there was an issue regarding the Spotted Owl and old growth forests, which ultimately resulted in timber regulations. Port Angeles, having historically relied largely on timber to support its economy, consequently had to shut down both mills in the town (Sweetser, 2019). These events surrounding the timber industry likely fueled this distrust and opposition towards the government once again intervening in the town's affairs. The Elwha and Glines dams were largely responsible for the growth and success of Port Angeles, and arguably the main reasons why it became successful. The removal of landmarks that represented the history and growth of Port Angeles would obviously be met with opposition. Though the citizens opposing dam removal were the minority, they still existed and were very much relevant. But have these negative sentiments changed since the removal of the dams?

Most of the main arguments against the dam removal that were stated above were ultimately proven to be false. However, other subsequent results of dam removal have influenced the way that some residents view the subject. There was a massive washout of a road and two campgrounds along the river because of dam removal. The campgrounds were utilized often by visitors and residents of the area, and had been since the 30's (Sweetser, 2019). Many citizens who were originally against dam removal may have seen the resulting washout as evidence that their opinions were right, and that dam removal was the wrong option.

Ultimately, this example perfectly demonstrates the fact that change is hard. When there are multiple sides arguing for and against something such as dam removal, both sides will not always win, and often those who opposed something beforehand will not always change their views afterwards. But this is exactly why ALL different viewpoints must be considered when talking about issues such as this.

Considering every viewpoint is of utmost importance when dealing with issues surrounding natural resources. Every person experiences and interacts with the natural world in various ways. The way that people of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe view and interact with the river and its resources might be different than the way that the citizens of Port Angeles do. Because of this, I am going to make a recommendation to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission as to how various perspectives on issues can be better accounted for in the future when making decisions regarding dam removal.

There are many tools available that can help determine the needs and wants of stakeholders in decisions such as the ones that were made regarding the Elwha dams. First, and arguably the simplest tool available, is to construct or review historical timelines that relate to the stakeholders involved. Historical timelines likely played a massive role in the removal of the dams on the Elwha, as Congress used the history of the Lower Elwha Klallam to understand their reasons for desperately wanting dam removal to occur. One other very useful tool to use is collaboratives, facilitated both within and between stakeholder groups by a neutral facilitator, and held at a location that is easily accessible by all members. I want to specifically highlight the “within and between” portion of my previous statement. Collaboratives between stakeholder groups are very important, as they allow these different groups to share their backgrounds and reasons for taking their positions. This way the groups can come to understand one another and where they are coming from. Collaboratives within groups are just as important, however, as evidenced by the opposing opinions on dam removal within the stakeholder group of the citizens of Port Angeles. If one were to group them all together, there would still be differing opinions that might not be properly shared or discussed in between-group-collaboratives. I recommend that these collaboratives occur at least semiannually, but holding them quarterly, bimonthly, or even monthly might prove to be more successful. Either way, the use of tools to improve competence in natural resource management is necessary. I believe that these two tools that I have recommended would be best suited to cases such as dam removal, but it is up to personal opinion as to which tool would be best used in different scenarios.

I have given a historical background on the events of the Elwha River, the different resources and stakeholders that were involved, and how history has shaped said stakeholders’ values. I have used this case study as a means of demonstrating the importance of considering every possible individual perspective on issues and actions regarding the use of natural resources. It is imperative that at least some methods that I outlined in the section above, or others, are used to effectively allow decisions regarding natural resources to be made. It is only through doing so that all of humanity can continue to enjoy and experience the many gifts of the natural world, together.

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Olympic National Park. (2015). Timeline of the Elwha through 1940. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Retrieved 30 Oct. 2023 from:  https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/historyculture/timeline-of-the-elwha-through-1940.htm  

Olympic National Park. (2019). History of the Elwha. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Retrieved 30 Oct. 2023 from:  https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/history-of-the-elwha.htm  

Olympic National Park. (2023). Elwha River restoration. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Retrieved 30 Oct. 2023 from:  https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/elwha-ecosystem-restoration.htm  

Pess, G. R., McHenry, M. L., Beechie, T. J., & Davies, J. (2008). Biological impacts of the Elwha River dams and potential salmonid responses to dam removal. Northwest Science, 82(sp1), 72–90.   https://doi.org/10.3955/0029-344X-82.S.I.72  

Sweetser, A. (2019). Socioecological and societal impacts of the Elwha Dam removal [Master's thesis, University of Washington]. UW ResearchWorks Archive.

Treaty of Point No Point, United States – Tribes of the S’Klallam, January 26, 1855,  https://goia.wa.gov/resources/treaties/treaty-point-no-point-1855 

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